Understanding Πνευματικός in First Corinthians:
Paul’s Corrective Vision for Spirit Life
by
Jeffrey Shawn Peters

Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
Master of Theology
in the
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY

March 2020
© Jeffrey Peters 2020

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ABSTRACT

Many English Bible translations use the term “spiritual” to translate the Greek
adjective πνευματικός. Some translations are exploring alternative ways to render
πνευματικός in an attempt to be more specific about what it means, indicating the word
“spiritual” may not be an adequate understanding of πνευματικός.
Fifteen of twenty-six occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament occur in
1 Corinthians. The goal of this project is to ask, Why does Paul repeatedly use the
term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians? This project will clarify the context of 1 Corinthians
and why Paul used the term πνευματικός the way he did, and will evaluate that use in
light of the broader meaning of πνευματικός. I will argue that this adjective always means
“pertaining to the πνεῦμα,” and in Paul’s letters the particular focus is almost always on
the πνεῦμα of God, that is, in New Testament terms, the Holy Spirit.
Paul’s usage of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians is part of a corrective response to
the distorted pneumatology of some in the Corinthian church. Paul’s vision is for an
eschatological community of Christ, empowered by and living obediently to the Spirit in
contrast to the schismatic, dysfunctional community that had arisen in Corinth during his
absence.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1

1.1 The Corinthian problem
1.2 The context of the Corinthian correspondence
1.3 Corinthian slogans and Paul’s method of quoting his opponents
1.4 Research Question and Thesis Statement
1.5 Overview of project
CHAPTER TWO: The meaning of πνευματικός and related Greek terms

36

2.1 The Greek noun πνεῦμα
2.2 The Greek adjective πνευματικός
2.3 The Greek adjective ψυχικός
2.4 The Greek adjectives σαρκικός and σάρκινος
2.5 The Greek noun σοφία
2.6 Summary of πνευματικός and other related Greek terms
CHAPTER THREE: The term πνευματικός in Greek literature

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3.1 Occurrences of πνευματικός in writings predating the New Testament
3.2 Occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament
3.3 Occurrences of πνευματικός in the Apostolic Fathers
3.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR: The Greek term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians

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4.1 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 1-4
4.2 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 5-10
4.3 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 11-14
4.4 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 15
CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion

160

5.1 The meaning of πνευματικός in the letter of 1 Corinthians
5.2 The implications of this study for the church today
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C

All 26 occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament
Corinthian Slogans
Theological Definition of Πνευματικός

BIBLIOGRAPHY
All English translations of the Greek New Testament are from the New
International Version (NIV) 2011 unless otherwise noted.

167
168
169
170

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CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
The Greek adjective πνευματικός occurs twenty-six times in the New Testament,
twenty-four of which appear in the letters of the Apostle Paul.1 Although the term
πνευματικός is not unique to Paul, his use of the term deserves a closer look for at least
two reasons. First, his writing takes place amidst the dawn of the Christian church during
which a great emphasis was placed upon the presence of God by the Spirit of the risen
Lord. Post-Pentecost use of the term πνευματικός, especially in letters written to
churches, may have a more Christian specificity in its meaning. Second, there is
something unique about the way Paul uses the term πνευματικός in the letter of 1
Corinthians as compared to the rest of his letters. It is not that Paul understands the
meaning of the term πνευματικός differently than he normally would, but the context in
which he is using it, or the goal he has in mind, is slightly different because of what is
going on in Corinth.
English Bibles often have the term πνευματικός translated as “spiritual,” although
some recent translations, such as the 2011 NIV, have tried to be more specific with “by
the Spirit” (1 Cor. 3:1) or “of the Spirit” (12:1). The term πνευματικός, as will be noted,
pertains to πνεῦμα.2 Although the term πνεῦμα can mean breath, wind, or the
noncorporeal part of a human, in the New Testament it most often refers to the Holy
Spirit, the third person of the Trinity. We will need to ask how this understanding of
πνεῦμα in the New Testament relates to our understanding of the cognate adjective’s
meaning.

1

See Appendix A on page 167 for a complete list of all occurrences of the Greek term πνευματικός
in the New Testament.
2
The adjective πνευματικός (spiritual) is related to the noun πνεῦμα (spirit) in a similar way that the
adjective σάρξ (flesh) is to the noun σαρκικός (fleshy).

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Although Paul used the term πνευματικός in four other epistles, over half of the
occurrences in the New Testament are found in 1 Corinthians. Because Paul’s letter to the
church in Corinth is one of correction, the reader must ask what it was about the term
πνευματικός that helped Paul make his case to the Corinthians. What was the Corinthian
problem? What is the context in Corinth to which Paul writes 1 Corinthians to address the
problem? And finally, what method did Paul use to address the problem in the letter of 1
Corinthians? The following sections will address these questions and establish a basis for
and thesis statement of how this project will explore, analyze and clarify Paul’s usage of
πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians.

1.1 The Corinthian problem
In his book After Paul Left Corinth, Bruce Winter asks what happened to the
Christian community in Corinth after Paul completed his initial work in that city.3 After
eighteen months of establishing this fellowship of disciples of Jesus, one would assume
the issues Paul addressed in the letter of 1 Corinthians should not have become
problems.4 Yet in the short three or so years of Paul’s absence before writing the letter 1
Corinthians, the church definitely experienced difficulties that were subsequently
communicated to Paul.
The premise of Winter’s book is that Christians in Corinth were cosmopolitan,
“citizens of this world and, in particular, citizens or residents of Roman Corinth. They
had grown up in, and imbibed that culture before they became Christians.”5 Part one of

3

Bruce Winter, After Paul Left Corinth (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 1.
As will be explored more fully in the following sections, Paul’s initial visit to Corinth was at least
eighteen months in length according to Luke’s account in Acts 18:11.
5
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 27.
4

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Winter’s book outlines the influence of secular ethics that challenged the formation of
Christian disciples in Corinth. Winter discusses the competitive secular discipleship of
the sophistic schools, criminal law, religious veiling, patronage and other ethical norms
of life in Corinth to demonstrate the social pressures Christians faced on a daily basis.6
Part two of Winter’s book narrows the focus to the influence of social changes in three
specific ways that affected the church: different marital sexual ethics and practices
between Paul’s preaching and the current Graeco-Roman lifestyle; increased attention
and pressure to participate in cultic celebrations; and the dilemma of kosher foods and
how to handle an invitation to eat “idol meat.”7
In addition to Winter’s suggested influences, there are five other influences that
should be considered,. The first is an increase in congregation size or the number of
house churches in Corinth.8 It is important to consider the number of people gathering as
the church in Corinth during Paul’s residence there, but also the added congregants who
did not benefit from Paul’s instruction in person and would have relied on the first
converts to inform them of Paul’s teachings.9

6

Other authors who have made a significant contribution to identifying these factors are Gerd
Theissen, The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock
Publishers, 1975); John K. Chow, Patronage and Power: A Study of Social Networks in Corinth (Sheffield,
UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992); David Wenham, “Whatever Went Wrong in Corinth?” ET 108.5
(Feb. 1997): 137-41; Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology (Collegeville,
MN.: The Liturgical Press, 1983).
7
These three factors are addressed in depth in chapters 10-13. Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 27.
8
Jerome Murphy-O’Connor has provided a detailed analysis of the size of the Corinthian
congregation and its potential for expansion during the years Paul was absent. Murphy-O’Connor, 178-185.
9
There is no solid evidence that the church in Corinth grew after Paul left them at the end of his
eighteen-month stay. But there are at least four reasons to believe that the church did continue to grow after
Paul left. The first is that this was the pattern of the early church. Luke records a few times that people were
added to the total number of believers. The second is that the addition of new people who did not know
Paul firsthand helps us to understand how some of his instruction was misunderstood. The third is that there
seems to be certain people that Paul is less familiar with, like the man sleeping with his father’s wife in
chapter five and those who were recently betrothed to be married and their potential future spouses in
chapter seven. The fourth is that Paul refers to unbelievers and inquirers in 1 Cor. 14:22-24 who may be
present in the church gathering, indicating that these gatherings were open to others (i.e. “outsiders).

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The second influence is itinerant preachers such as Apollos and the Apostle Peter.
Although there is no explicit evidence Peter travelled to Corinth, he is mentioned four
times in 1 Corinthians as “Cephas” and in three of those occasions Paul is appealing to
the Corinthians to avoid factions based on a preferred leader, and also defending his own
apostleship among them (1 Cor. 1:12; 3:22; 9:5). It seems obvious that Peter visited
Corinth at least once for some in the church to have named him as the person they
followed.
Apollos, on the other hand, was in Corinth after Paul’s first visit and before he
wrote 1 Corinthians (Acts 18:24-28; cf. 1 Cor. 16:12). Because of Paul’s note about
Apollos’ reluctance to go back to Corinth in 1 Cor. 16:12, it is quite probable that he was
present in Ephesus while Paul was writing the letter of 1 Corinthians. Apollos is
mentioned seven times in 1 Corinthians, the first six appearing in the first four chapters as
Paul deconstructs the Corinthian’s view of competing leadership. There is no doubt that
Apollos had a major impact on the problems that arose in the Corinthian church.
The third influence is the Corinthian’s misunderstanding of what Paul originally
taught.10 The textual evidence in support of this is possible is found in 1 Corinthians 5:910. Before writing the letter “1 Corinthians,” Paul wrote a letter now lost that is
sometimes known as the “previous letter” (1 Cor. 5:9). In 1 Cor. 5:9-10 Paul has to
clarify his instructions from his first letter, that he was not forbidding them to fellowship
with all immoral people but only immoral brothers or sisters in the church. This simple
misunderstanding helps to recognize how easy it is for people to hear something and

10

When referring to an issue that occurred in the church in Corinth, it is always difficult to know if
the whole church experienced this difficulty or only some within the church. On this particular point, it is
unlikely that the whole church misunderstood Paul, and this could have even been cause for some of the
divisions this church experienced.

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interpret it differently than what was intended.11 More will be said on this topic later in
the chapter when Corinthian slogans are discussed.
The fourth influence on the church in Corinth was sin, such as selfish desires and
bad behaviours. These sometimes arise simply because people do not always do the right
thing even when they are so instructed. There are problems that arise in the church in
Corinth because of elitism and pride, exclusion, and hedonism. As Winter discusses,
these sins can also be a result of social influences and pressures.
The fifth influence is that before he left the city, Paul could not possibly have
been able to predict all of the issues and questions that would emerge after his departure.
There were no New Testament scriptures that Paul could have recommended to them at
this time, and although he taught the Corinthians from the Torah and the prophets, their
access to these scrolls may have been limited due to the conflict with the Jews.12 Paul’s
Christian life among them for those eighteen months is really all they had, besides the
preaching ministry of Apollos and possibly the visit by Peter. Richard Hays explains:
We must remember that the church at Corinth is a church with no established
Christian tradition, no members who have been believers longer than about three
years at the most, no written gospels, and no authoritative Torah to regulate
behavior. They are being forced to invent the Christian life as they go, and they
are obviously having some trouble doing so. Under these circumstances, a living
visible example of how to ‘walk’ in the ways of the gospel is indispensable.13
One other issue that requires comment regarding the Corinthian problem is the

11

If there were multiple house churches with different leadership in each, then this might also
contribute to this problem. This might be the reason different house churches identified with Paul or Peter
or Apollos.
12
It is difficult to know for certain how much conflict there was between Christians and Jews in
Corinth, but during these years in the first century the relationship between Christians and Jews was
strained. Most of the tension came from Roman authorities blaming Jews for the activity of Christians, and
the Jews did not want this association. Given the narrative of Acts 18:1-17, one might speculate that there
was ongoing tension between Jews and Christians in Corinth.
13
Richard B. Hays, First Corinthians (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1997), 74.

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nature of the divisions that appear evident upon reading the first chapter of 1 Corinthians.
It is common for commentators to pose Paul’s appeal in 1 Corinthians 1:10-12 as the
guiding exhortation of the entire letter. That is, all other concerns in 1 Corinthians emerge
from their divisiveness.
According to 1 Corinthians 1:11 and the content that follows in the first four
chapters, the report that comes from Chloe’s people is about the growing factions in the
church (1 Cor. 1:11-12; 3:1-4, 21-23). Paul identifies these factions by the leaders they
associated themselves with, but no further explicit information is given about the nature
of the divisions. Implicitly, the remainder of the letter expresses various kinds of division,
such as the response to the incestuous man (5:1-13), using the courts against each other
(6:1-11), prostitution and other sexual issues (6:12-7:40), eating meat that has been
sacrificed to idols (8:1-11:1), head coverings in worship (11:2-16), the Lord’s supper
(11:17-34), expressions of gifts from the Spirit (12:1-14:40), and differing understandings
of resurrection (15:1-58). Among the issues Paul identifies in his letter are exclusive
behaviours based on socio-economic inequality and possibly ethnic and other expressions
of inequality, knowledge and differences of conscience, and elite gifts of prophetic
utterance. Although it should not be automatically assumed, it is reasonable to understand
that those in the church who were wealthy, educated, and who were advancing in their
experience of divine utterance were the same group of people. The people excluded were
the poor, uneducated, slaves, people with a weaker conscience, and those who had not
experienced prophetic utterance.14

14

One might wonder where the leaders of the church were in all of this exclusivity and bad
behaviour. There is no evidence that Paul established elders in Corinth this early as he seems to have done
later in his ministry. It is probable that those who facilitated the church gatherings in their homes were also
regarded as leaders. There is significant probability that references to the “influential” people in Corinth (1

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Gordon Fee is right to point out that even though there are factions within the
church the main disagreement is not between individual members of the church, but with
a certain group within the church that is rejecting Paul’s apostleship.15 The contention
between this certain group and Paul is made clearer in chapters four and nine of 1
Corinthians and the entire letter of 2 Corinthians. It is this primary disagreement that also
fuels the disagreement between various groups in the church.

1.2 The context of the Corinthian correspondence
In the book of Acts, Luke records Paul making two visits to Corinth. The first
visit is recorded in Acts 18:1-18 during Paul’s second missionary journey. Based on the
archaeological discovery of Gallio’s Inscription, most scholars date Paul’s first visit to
early spring of AD 50.16 Luke indicates that Paul stayed in Corinth for eighteen months,
which means he could have been back in Jerusalem (Acts 18:22) by late fall of AD 51.17
The second visit is recorded by Luke in Acts 20:2-3, indicating that Paul stayed in Greece
for three months during Paul’s third missionary journey. The remainder of Acts 20
Cor. 1:26-29), to those taking their brothers and sisters to court (1 Cor. 5) and those attending the pagan
temple festivities were generally the more wealthy class within the church in Corinth, and presented a
social class division that contributed to the other divisions noted in 1 Corinthians. For an insightful look at
the social dynamics of first-century Corinth, see Gerd Theissen, The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity:
Essays on Corinth (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1975), and John K. Chow. Patronage and
Power: A Study of Social Networks in Corinth. (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992).
15
Gordon Fee summarizes in his revised commentary, on page 6, “The basic stance of the present
commentary is that the historical situation in Corinth was primarily one of conflict between the church and
its founder. This is not to deny that the church was experiencing internal strife, but it is to argue that the
greater problem of “division” was between Paul and some in the community who were leading the church
as a whole into an anti-Pauline view of things. For Paul, this conflict presents a twofold crisis – over his
authority and his gospel. Furthermore, the key issue between Paul and them, which created both of these
crises, most likely had to do with the Corinthian understanding of what it means to be “spiritual”
(pneumatikos = people of the Spirit).” Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Revised Edition
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014), 6.
16
Jerome Murphy-O’Connor offers a convincing explanation of the dating of the Gallio Inscription
and therefore the timing of Paul’s visit to Corinth. Murphy-O’Connor, 161-169.
17
Could have been more – perhaps “another” 18 months. But 18 months does allow for an early
spring arrival in AD 50 and a late fall departure in AD 51.

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narrates Paul’s journey back to Judea via Macedonia and Caesarea to bring the collection
to the saints in Jerusalem. However, the letter of 2 Corinthians indicates that Paul made
another visit in between the two visits that Luke narrates, making the last visit Paul
makes to Corinth his third.
After the first eighteen months Paul spends in Corinth in AD 50-51, he sailed to
Ephesus with Priscilla and Aquila in the fall of AD 51, and a short time thereafter
returned to Jerusalem before the winter months made sailing difficult. Paul returns to
Ephesus before the winter of AD 52 where he stayed for about three years.18 Because
Paul addresses the request by some in Corinth for Apollos to return to Corinth (1 Cor.
16:12), it is suggested that Apollos returned to Ephesus in either AD 53 or AD 54, and
perhaps is one of Paul’s informants which began the letter correspondence.
The first letter Paul wrote to the church in Corinth is often referred to as the
“previous letter” from Paul’s reference in 1 Corinthians 5:9, “I wrote to you in a letter not
to associate with sexually immoral people.” Although this letter is unavailable, it is
evident that Paul had written to the Corinthians regarding sexual immorality before he
wrote the letter of 1 Corinthians.19 Paul’s clarification of what he meant (1 Cor. 5:9-10)
reveals that his initial instruction was misunderstood. Paul makes clear in 1 Cor. 5:9-10
that his concern was relationships within the church, not relationships with the people of
the city who did not profess Christ, at which point he expands the scope of sins from just

18

Luke indicates that Paul was in Ephesus or “based in Ephesus” while ministering in the province
of Asia for a period of two years in Acts 19:10 and a period of three years in Acts 20:31. To indicate that
Paul was in Asia at that time for “about three years” is a best guess given the limited information available.
19
According to Thiselton, several “Church Fathers interpret ἔγραφα in v. 9 as an epistolary aorist
denoting the present act of writing.” Thiselton refutes this claim because of the immediate context, ἐν τῇ
ἑπιστολῇ, meaning, “in my [the] letter.” Thiselton states that “Calvin, Beza, Estius, Grotius, Bengel, and
virtually all modern commentators” agree. Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians
(Grand Rapids: MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 408-409.

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sexual immorality to sins of greed, swindling, idolatry, verbal abuse and drunkenness (1
Cor. 5:10-11). Paul’s theological premise for his correction is that God judges those in
the world, but the church is to make judgments for itself (1 Cor. 5:12-13; cf. Matt. 18:1520).
Other than a few observations one might make implicitly from Paul’s comments
in 1 Cor. 5:9-10, there is no information available for determining what precipitated Paul
writing this first letter. It might be assumed that with a regular “come and go” of Paul’s
associates and others including Timothy, Titus, Priscilla and Aquila, and even Apollos,
that Paul kept a close watch over his churches.20 More than likely, Paul’s reason for
writing the “previous letter” came from a report from one of these travelling companions.
The letter of 1 Corinthians is then considered the second letter Paul wrote to the
church in Corinth, best dated sometime in AD 55, before Paul made the painful visit to
Corinth (2 Cor. 2:1).21 Paul wrote the letter of 1 Corinthians as a response to the reports
he received regarding the behavioural and ethical, and thus theological, issues emerging
and developing in the church in Corinth. Paul indicates in the letter at least three sources
of information he received from Corinth: an oral report from Chloe’s people (1 Cor.

20
Another individual who may have brought news from Corinth at some point before 1 Corinthians
was written is Sosthenes, the synagogue ruler in Corinth who takes over after Crispus converts to
Christianity (Acts 18:8). The only other mention of Sosthenes is in 1 Cor. 1:1, where Paul includes this
name in the opening address line. It is possible this is not the same person as the synagogue ruler in Acts
18:17. But if it is, then both of the synagogue rulers in Corinth were converted to Christianity and the
second, Sosthenes, became a part of Paul’s leadership team, eventually making his way to Ephesus where
he assisted Paul writing the letter of 1 Corinthians.
21
Based on 1 Corinthians 16:6, Thiselton indicates the letter of 1 Corinthians was written in spring
in either AD 54 or AD 55. Thiselton, 29-32. Because of the emphasis on the collection at the end of the
letter and the further narrative found in 2 Corinthians 8-9 which places a large emphasis on completing the
mission of the collection for Jerusalem, it is possible that the death of Claudius in October of AD 54 was
also a significant factor in motivating Paul to write 1 Corinthians, which would then confirm the date as
spring AD 55.

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1:11); a visit from Stephanus, Fortunatus and Achaicus (1 Cor. 16:17); and a letter that
was delivered to Paul, perhaps by the previous three gentlemen.22
It is not clear who wrote the letter that was delivered to Paul in Ephesus, but it
appears at least some from the church in Corinth contributed to its writing.23 The most
explicit evidence for this letter is when Paul referred to it specifically, “Now for the
matters you wrote about” (1 Cor. 7:1a). This is the first of six occurrences of περὶ δὲ,
which Gordon Fee asserts are Paul’s written cues that each of the six occurrences are
references to issues emerging from the Corinthian letter.24 Margaret Mitchell’s
contribution to understanding the use of περὶ δὲ helps to caution Hurd’s reconstruction
project of the “previous letter,” which Thiselton calls “speculative.” 25

22

An interesting third report hypothesis is the return to Ephesus of Apollos. Originally from
Alexandria, Luke narrates Apollos’ arrival to Ephesus and his departure for Corinth in Acts 18:24-28. From
the seven times Apollos is mentioned in 1 Corinthians (1 Cor. 1:12; 3:4, 5, 6, 22; 4:6; 16:12), it is quite
clear that Apollos was in Corinth and that he stayed long enough to be a part of the developing factions.
The last mention of Apollos in 1 Corinthians is 16:12, which is the last of the six Περὶ δὲ statements in the
letter, possibly indicating Paul’s last response from the letter sent from Corinth. From Paul’s reply it
appears some in Corinth would have liked Apollos to return and that Paul did in fact urge him to return.
This is evidence that Apollos had travelled back to Ephesus sometime after Paul arrived at Ephesus on his
third missionary journey, and before Paul wrote 1 Corinthians. Could Apollos also have reported to Paul
regarding issues at Corinth? Or, as some have noted, was Apollos’ report what initiated the first letter Paul
wrote (1 Cor. 5:9)?
23
Because it is reasonable to assume that Stephanus, Fortunatus and Achaicus brought the letter
from Corinth and stayed the winter prior to Paul writing 1 Corinthians, it is estimated that Paul received
their visit and the letter from Corinth in the late fall of AD 54.
24
Fee writes, “This ‘now about’ formula will appear five more times (7:25; 8:1 -8:4]; 12:1; 16:1,
12). Almost certainly these pick up subsequent items in their letter to Paul, although as noted above, not
necessarily in order.” Gordon Fee, 1 Corinthians, 305.
25
Thiselton, 32-39; John Coolidge Hurd Jr., The Origin of 1 Corinthians (Macon, GA: Mercer
University Press, 1983), 61-71. Mitchell begins her argument by stating, “It is a unanimous conclusion in
scholarship on 1 Corinthians that the phrase περὶ δὲ ("and concerning . . . " ) in 1 Cor. 7:1, 25; 8:1; 12:1;
16:1, 12 provides in some way the key to the structure and composition of the letter.” And while she does
not argue against the possibility of Paul using the phrase περὶ δὲ as topic markers from the letter the
Corinthians wrote to Paul, she does demonstrate in her research the various ways περὶ δὲ is used in other
Greek literature and makes her case that it cannot be assumed this was addressing the matters of the letter
point by point. Margaret Mitchell, “Concerning περὶ δὲ in 1 Corinthians,” NovT 31 (1989): 229-56.

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The oral report Paul received was from “Chloe’s people” (literally “by those of
Chloe,” ὑπὸ τῶν Χλόης).26 Jerome Murphy-O’Connor assumes Chloe is an Ephesian
merchant and “her people” are staff sent to Corinth on business.27 While somewhat
presumptuous about Chloe’s work, it is more persuasive to understand her people as staff,
or even as slaves as Gerd Theissen suggests, than family as indicated by most translations
with “household,” including the NIV.28 The conclusion that Chloe was Ephesian may
also be debated. John Hurd doubts Chloe’s people were Corinthian because the text
indicates the information came from the people, not the church.29 While Thiselton and
Fee think it is probable that she was from Asia and had some connection to the Ephesian
church, Theissen writes, “They scarcely belong in Ephesus – if it is assumed that Romans
16 contains a list of greetings to people in Ephesus – for they are not mentioned there
although two groups of slaves are.”30 Most would regard this report as oral, that is,
Chloe’s associates just arrived in Ephesus from Corinth and they report to Paul
concerning the things they have recently witnessed in the church in Corinth.
Sometime after the letter of 1 Corinthians was sent to Corinth, Paul receives
information from Corinth that some people are causing trouble.31 From Ephesus, then,

26

Not much is known about who Chloe’s people are and their relationship with the Apostle Paul.
The fact that these associates would know details of the Corinthian church means they gathered with the
church while in Corinth or at the very least had some connection with those who were a part of the church.
They must have also been fairly close to Paul to feel obligated to give him feedback upon their return to
Ephesus.
27
Murphy-O’Connor, 173.
28
Theissen notes that family would have always been referred to by the father’s name even if he was
dead. Theissen, 57, cf. 92-94. One must also keep in mind that “household” in the first century would have
had a slightly different connotation than our concept of “family” today.
29
Hurd, Origins of 1 Corinthians, 48.
30
Gerd Theissen, 92. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians 121. Fee, The First Epistle to
the Corinthians, 55.
31
The informant is best understood as Timothy because he would have arrived in Corinth shortly
after the arrival of 1 Corinthians, and Paul wanted the Corinthians to treat Timothy well (4:17; 16:10-11).
Before Paul left Ephesus for Corinth, he sends Timothy and Erastus ahead of him into Macedonia,
indicating that Timothy must have returned to Ephesus after his stay in Corinth (Acts 19:22).

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Paul travels directly to Corinth for a brief, but painful, visit (2 Cor. 2:1; cf. 12:14, 13:12). Not much is known about this visit except that he immediately follows it up with a
letter written “out of great distress and anguish of heart and many tears” (2 Cor. 2:4),
which apparently caused sorrow and hurt (2 Cor. 7:8). The fact that Paul needed to write
this letter indicates that his painful visit was unsuccessful.
The “tearful letter” (referred to above) that Paul wrote “out of great distress and
anguish of heart” (2 Cor. 2:4), is the third known letter Paul wrote to Corinth. This letter,
like the “previous letter,” is lost. The only information available is that Paul describes
that this letter caused sorrow and hurt for some in the church in Corinth - yet the sorrow
that it caused led to repentance, which produced earnestness and eagerness to clear
themselves and the readiness to achieve justice within the community (2 Cor. 7:8-13a).
This response delighted Paul, and along with the visit and subsequent report from Titus
(2 Cor. 7:13b-16), set Paul up for his final letter and visit to Corinth.
The letter called “2 Corinthians” in the New Testament is Paul’s fourth known
letter to Corinth.32 It was written sometime while Paul was in Macedonia. After the riots
in Ephesus, with Timothy and Erastus travelling ahead of him into Macedonia, Paul sails
for Troas. It appears he made arrangements for Titus to possibly meet him in Troas,
because even though positive things were happening in his ministry there, he was restless
when Titus did not come (2 Cor. 2:12-13). Paul continues on to Philippi through the port
city of Neapolis, and sometime later Titus arrives in Philippi from Corinth and reports all
32

Gordon Fee among others make the case that 2 Corinthians is at best two letters that were merged.
There are other proposals that it may even be more than two letters. This debate is not important for this
study and for that reason it will be assumed 2 Corinthians is a single composition, in agreement with the
work by Barnett and Harris. Paul W. Barnett, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1997), 15-16; Murray J. Harris, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 2005), 51-54

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that had happened upon the delivery of the “tearful letter” (third letter) that Paul had sent.
The whole event of Titus and Paul meeting in Philippi, encouraging the churches in
Macedonia and making a final collection for the saints in Jerusalem, travelling to
Illyricum, and all the while writing the letter “2 Corinthians” happened in AD 55-56
(Acts 20:1-3). Finally, in late fall of AD 56, Paul makes his third and final visit to Corinth
and stays for three months (Acts 20:3). He completes the collection in Corinth at that
time, writes a letter to the church in Rome and sends Phoebe to deliver the letter
anticipating a journey to Spain after bringing the collection to Jerusalem (Rom. 15:23-29;
16:1). Paul’s original plan to board a ship in Cenchreae changed when he heard about a
plan to ambush him (Acts 20:3). He instead sent most of his companions on the ship
while he travelled through Macedonia with Luke. Paul and Luke celebrated the days of
unleavened bread in Philippi before catching up with their companions in Troas after
celebrating the Passover (Acts 20:6).33
The context of Paul’s entire correspondence with Corinth (personal visits, letters,
and reports from those associated with Paul), demonstrates that everything written in 1
Corinthians is part of a much bigger and longer conversation than simply one letter. With
the various issues arising through the report from Chloe’s people and through the letter
that the church sends to Paul, everything that Paul writes in 1 Corinthians should be
understood as a corrective response based on the issues and questions that have been
posed to him by various representatives of the church and those connected to the church.

33
Paul and Luke would have presumably sailed out from Neapolis, the port city near Philippi.
Because they were against the prevailing winds it took five days of sailing to arrive in Troas (unlike his
earlier trip from Troas to Neapolis that only took two days, mentioned in Acts 16:11). According to F.F.
Bruce, if this trip was taken in the spring of AD 57 (and it is quite probable) then the week in Philippi
would have been April 7-14. F.F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, Revised Edition [NICNT] (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1988), 383.

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Two important observations need to be noted from this lengthy narrative of
correspondence. The first is that the nature of the letter is apologetic. Paul is first and
foremost defending his apostleship to the Corinthians and the gospel he preached, which
was received by faith in Corinth (1 Cor. 2:4-5). Paul’s defense of his apostleship is more
acute in 2 Corinthians, but is already present in 1 Corinthians, especially in chapters 4
and 9. Although some of the factions in the church could have been encouraged by
preferences of preaching and teaching, the suspicion against Paul is clear and this has
contributed to a group forming against Paul. The various issues and arguments regarding
Christian discipleship and the church have a role to play within these fragmented groups,
but the larger issue is a rejection of Paul’s apostolic authority in their ranks. With the
erosion of Paul’s authority in the church is also the distortion of the gospel Paul preached.
For Paul, defending his apostleship is defending the gospel; the two cannot be separated.
The second observation is that the occasion of 1 Corinthians provides the
backdrop for Paul’s challenge to the Corinthians regarding their understanding of
πνευματικός. Their pursuit of σοφία (wisdom), γνῶσις (knowledge), χαρίσματα (gifts),
and their over-realized eschatology consequently formed an understanding of the term
πνευματικός as an achievement or a symbol of status in the community. Their distorted
understanding of the work of the Spirit resulted in pride, elitism, and exclusion. This, of
course, troubled Paul and gave rise for his corrective remarks in 1 Corinthians. These
Corinthians, whom Paul affirmed as “enriched in every way” (1 Cor. 1:4), expressed the
advantage of God’s Spirit through wisdom, knowledge and gifts, but had failed to behave
in ways consistent with the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23). Not only does Paul correct

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their understanding of what it means to be πνευματικός, but pastorally he also invites
them to live in such a way.34
In summary, the letter of 1 Corinthians must be understood as one of many ways
Paul and the church in Corinth were communicating with each other on various issues
that were emerging in Corinth. The reader of 1 Corinthians today must carefully identify
how the reports Paul received, both orally and by letter, inform Paul and guide the way he
responds in his letter. Although Paul is not limited to writing only in response to the
reports he received, much of 1 Corinthians is a part of this larger correspondence. The
evaluation of Paul’s responses contained in 1 Corinthians to the church in Corinth needs
to recognize this correspondence and how Paul uses the reports he received to construct
this letter.

1.3 Corinthian slogans and Paul’s method of quoting his opponents
The context of the Corinthian correspondence clarifies the complexity of 1
Corinthians as only one part of an ongoing correspondence of letters, reports, and
personal visits. Although 1 Corinthians contains a great deal of general and practical
instruction for Christians today, it is first and foremost a letter of response to the believers
in Corinth, addressing the ongoing issues in the church that were reported to Paul.35 One
cannot truly understand the instructions in 1 Corinthians without having some idea of the
larger correspondence between the church and her founder.36
34

The NIV2011 translates the dative plural “πνευματικοῖς” as “people who live by the Spirit” in 1
Cor. 3:1. The phrase “people of the Spirit” might also work here, but the translators are making a choice to
distinguish those who have the Spirit and those who are actually living according to the Spirit.
35
Reading 1 Corinthians, as other New Testament letters, is reading someone else’s mail. The
canonical status does not remove the occasion, which gives the reader the context for the instruction.
36
One might also wonder if some of the factions were naturally caused by the various house
churches in Corinth that constituted the larger church at Corinth.

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One method Paul uses to interact with the Corinthians in 1 Corinthians is by
stating or quoting their ideas and questions prior to his corrective response. As Paul
responds to the issues in the church or to questions that came from reports or their letter,
it is reasonable to suggest that Paul may have expressed Corinthian ideas and practices in
his own words or used terminology they employed in the various reports and documents
he received. If it can be concluded that much of Paul’s agenda in the letter of 1
Corinthians is to correct their understanding on various issues by first stating their ideas
that occasionally formed into slogans, then it is also possible that Paul’s repeated use of
the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians is being used this way.
A clear example of Paul quoting the Corinthians is in his opening appeal in 1 Cor.
1:10-12 where he calls for unity among them because he has heard reports of their
quarrels. To illustrate what he is referring to, he quotes them in what appears to be a set
of aphorisms or slogans, “What I mean is this: One of you says, ‘I follow Paul’; another,
‘I follow Apollos’; another, ‘I follow Cephas’; still another, ‘I follow Christ’” (1 Cor.
1:12). The NIV inserts quotation marks around the four “follow” statements to indicate
these are the things that Chloe’s people reported to Paul that some in the church at
Corinth were saying. It does not make any sense for the reader to understand these
statements as Paul’s instruction to the Corinthians. Moreover, Paul clearly states, “one of
you says,” indicating that he is aware of the things they are saying about themselves.
This happens again in chapter 8 where Paul is responding to the questions the
Corinthians asked him in their letter regarding eating food that had been sacrificed to
idols in the pagan temples. Statements such as “we all possess knowledge” (8:1) and, “An
idol is nothing at all in the world” (8:4) and, “There is no God but one” (8:4) could easily

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be understood as Paul’s instruction. But understanding the context and how Paul
responds to the Corinthians in chapters eight through ten helps the reader identify these
statements as Corinthian slogans that Paul repeats in order to address the problems that
had emerged in this context.37
In 2010, Jay Smith wrote an article called “Slogans in 1 Corinthians” that furthers
the work of other scholars regarding the idea that Paul occasionally quoted a slogan
(word or phrase) from some in the church of Corinth in order to comment on it or argue
against it.38 In his article, Smith indicates that the term “slogan” may be a bit misleading
because “the search is not simply for clever, rhetorical turns of phrase. Instead it is a
search for Corinthian expressions in 1 Corinthians, regardless of their form.”39 Smith
clarifies the use of the term “slogan” by defining it as “a motto [or similar expression that
captures the spirit, purpose, or guiding principles] of a particular group or point of view
at Corinth, or at least a motto that Paul was using to represent their position or
attitudes.”40 What Smith and others are pointing to are the various ways Paul addresses

37

Gordon Fee comments that “the repeated ‘that’ (“we know that . . . and that . . .”) makes it almost
certain that he is here quoting them.” Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 409.
38
Smith specifically cites the previous work of John C. Hurd, Jr., Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, Roger
L. Omanson, and Paul C. Siebenmann. Each of these authors, and many other commentators, have
discussed Corinthian slogans and have suggested various ways of understanding them. Jay E. Smith,
“Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” Bibliotheca Sacra 167.665 (January 1, 2010); Hurd, 1983; Jerome MurphyO’Connor, Keys to First Corinthians: Revisiting the Major Issues (Oxford, UK: University Press, 2009):
20-31; Roger L. Omanson, “Acknowledging Paul’s Quotations,” The Bible Translator 43 (1992): 201-13;
Paul C. Siebenmann, “The Question of Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” (PhD Dissertation, Baylor University,
1997).
39
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 84. Even if the word “slogan” is not the best way to describe
the way the Corinthians kept beliefs or ideas at the forefront of their thoughts and conversations, it is a
quick way to refer to the full range of Corinthian belief that is known only because Paul repeats it in his
letter to them. Perhaps these could be referred to as aphorisms designed to communicate key ideas that one
or other groups believed. They may have even served as a kind of catechism in the church community.
40
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 82. Smith notes this as a conflation of Paul Siebenmann and
Stanley K. Towers. Siebenmann wrote, “A motto is a maxim which encapsulates the spirit, purpose, or
guiding principles adopted by an individual or a group.” Siebenmann, 54.

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the Corinthians using a word, phrase, or even idea that the Corinthians were using to
justify their beliefs or behaviours, or to summarize key aspects of their theology.41
Smith acknowledges his presupposition regarding Corinthian slogans, “that Paul
routinely cited pre-existing materials – whether an Old Testament text, a saying of Jesus,
a line from a Greek poet, an early creedal fragment or hymn, or presumably a Corinthian
slogan – without giving explicit indication that he was doing so.”42 The point that Smith
makes is that Paul does not always state the sources he is drawing from, making it
difficult for modern readers to identify when he is, in fact, referring to another source.
Smith also recognizes that these slogans “may be of Paul’s own making (wording) and
thus do not necessarily have to be proverbial in nature or highly stylized in form.”43 The
idea is not that they phrased these statements in cute or well-marketed ways – but a
statement that simply represents or expresses their position or point of view on any given
issue.44
The reason it is important to identify Corinthian slogans in the text, according to
Smith, is that if readers ignore this question they run the risk of promoting something that
Paul was actually arguing against. Smith states his main point this way:
The point in all this is rather simple: the slogans embedded in 1 Corinthians must
be ferreted out, and Paul’s reaction to them must be ascertained. Otherwise one
risks endorsing what Paul rejected (or perhaps rejecting what Paul endorsed).
41

Siebenmann compares Paul’s quotation methods with other Greco-Roman authors to show how
these techniques were not just Pauline, but standard practices in the first century. Siebenmann, 47. See also
Christopher D. Stanley, “Paul and Homer: Greco-Roman Citation Practice in the First Century CE,” NovT
32 (1990): 49.
42
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 72. Smith charts all of the citations that lack acknowledgement
from 1 Corinthians, including Old Testament quotations, Old Testament allusions, Sayings of Jesus
(allusions), Greek poet Menander, and Creedal or hymnic fragments on pages 72-73, 13 possible references
in all.
43
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 83.
44
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 84. It may also be true that these “slogans” were words or
statements that came from Paul’s own teaching, that were either misunderstood or misapplied in Paul’s
absence.

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Such a mistake could have disastrous consequences for Christian theology, ethics,
and witness.45
In order to bring consistency to how slogans are identified, Smith suggests a
number of specific criteria.46 Although the application of Smith’s criteria do not
guarantee a correct identification, they are helpful ways for interpreters to discuss each
suggested slogan. Of special note are three additional tests that Smith offers:
•

Contextual congruency: Does identifying and isolating a slogan make the best
sense of the immediate context?
Confirmation by others in the history of exegesis (the mature reflection and
collective wisdom of “the interpretive community”).
Convergence of multiple strands of evidence.47

•
•

Paul Siebenmann contributes to this discussion in his 1997 dissertation called
“The Question of Slogans in 1 Corinthians.” For Siebenmann, the whole point is to
identify how Paul attempts to connect with his recipients on their terms. Siebenmann
writes, “Paul’s letter (1 Corinthians) indicates that he did choose to integrate literary
citations in creative ways, and that he employed quotations to re-establish communion
with the Corinthian church.”48 Siebenmann concludes, then, that Paul’s reason for
making use of Corinthian expressions was to connect with his audience in more effective
ways.
Siebenmann, convinced Paul knew exactly what he was doing while employing
the Corinthian slogans, states, “Paul’s masterful use of quotations provides ample
evidence of his awareness of the role quotations play in the establishment of communion

45

Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 71.
Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 84-86. For a full list of specific criteria for identifying and
isolating Corinthian slogans in 1 Corinthians, see Appendix B on page 168.
47
Smith, 85-86.
48
Siebenmann, 50.
46

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with one’s readers.”49 Using other people’s thoughts and speech to communicate to them
without indicating clearly each time that you are doing that requires a certain level of
intimacy or knowledge of each other in the relationship. Paul’s citations are mostly
imbedded right into his instruction, and although it is sometimes difficult for modern
readers to identify these quotations, the Corinthians would have easily heard their own
slogans in Paul’s letters when read aloud. Siebenmann elaborates, “When participants in
a communication know one another well, it is not necessary to introduce details with
phrases such as ‘you know that,’ or ‘some are saying that’ … Accordingly, omissions of
introductory marks are not only appropriate but they also serve to indicate the degree of
interpersonal identification achieved.”50 Siebenmann’s claim assumes more than it can
prove and perhaps should have been conditioned with “they can under some
circumstances serve to indicate the degree of interpersonal identification achieved,” as
there is no way of quantifying this achievement. Nonetheless, what Siebenmann is
pointing to are some helpful ways of identifying possible links between communication
participants through literary device.
Although not every New Testament scholar agrees with the concept of slogans or
the criteria by which to determine what is in fact a slogan, the theory of such quotations
in 1 Corinthians is becoming more accepted over time. Siebenmann states, “The
designation of the Corinthian expressions quoted by Paul as slogans is the result of a
gradual process which has produced wide-spread acceptance within the field of New
Testament scholarship.”51

49

Siebenmann, 49.
Ibid., 50.
51
Ibid., 52.
50

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Gordon Fee states that the repeated phrase in 1 Cor. 6:12 and 10:23 is “almost
certainly a Corinthian theological slogan,” confirmed as Paul “qualifies it so sharply as to
negate it – at least as a theological absolute.”52 In the case of 1 Cor. 7:1, Fee refers to the
Corinthian quotation as a maxim and then comments, “Most likely, therefore, as
elsewhere (6:12-13; 8:1, 4), Paul is here quoting from the letter itself, if not its actual
language, at least in sentiment.”53
Anthony Thiselton is more explicit about his view of Corinthian slogans.
Commenting on the work of Hurd, Thiselton writes, “There can be no question that the
initial clause of v. 12 represents a quotation used as a maxim by some or by many at
Corinth . . . The overwhelming majority of modern scholars adopt this view, and tables of
such writers are readily at hand.”54 On several occasions throughout his commentary
Thiselton refers to Hurd’s work of listing the many scholars in support of this view. 55
An example of a widely accepted slogan in 1 Corinthians is, “I have the right to
do anything,” found in both 1 Corinthians 6:12 and 10:23.56 The NIV has consistently
translated this part of these verses as something the Corinthians were saying, using

52

Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 278. Although it is possible that these statements of
freedom could have emerged from Paul’s own Christian ethics, it is more probable that these statements
came from the privileges that Roman citizens enjoyed and were entitled to (see When Paul Left Corinth by
Bruce Winter, 81-82).
53
Ibid., 307.
54
Thiselton cites John Hurd’s table on page 68, Thiselton, 460-461, Hurd, 68. The table Hurd
provides includes twenty-four scholars and whether they acknowledge slogans in 1 Cor. 6:12, 13; 7:1; 8:1,
4, 5f, 8; 11:2. Although recent research has suggested more slogans than Hurd’s list, it is significant that
sixty-three percent of the chart affirms slogans in 1 Corinthians, even given the current suggested slogans
list. 7. Smith offers charts indicating the positions of prominent scholars on the issue of Corinthian slogans
(p. 87) and indicating all of the prominent English translations and whether they recognize these slogans in
their translation (p. 88).
55
Thiselton, 272. Hurd states, “It will be recognized immediately that all of these propositions were
cited in Chapter 3 as being, in the opinion of a number of scholars, Paul’s quotations of the Corinthians’
slogans. These scholars explain the fact that the above statements favour the enlightened Corinthians’
position by suggesting that they are in fact the Corinthians’ own words.” Hurd, 120.
56
The quotation may be more familiar in the King James Version which reads, “All things are
lawful unto me.”

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quotation marks and even adding “you say” to clearly indicate that Paul was quoting the
Corinthians. Most modern translations include quotation marks in these texts but many of
the older translations do not.57 Where the quotation marks are not given, the reader has a
choice to read it as a quotation even without the quotation marks, or to read it as a part of
Paul’s instruction, ignoring the contrastive ἀλλά in the middle of the statement. For the
latter choice, the reader is left to explain how to make sense of Paul first instructing them
that they are permitted to do all things and then second, offering a different perspective
that opposes the first by stating that it is not beneficial.
Another example of a Corinthian slogan that has been widely accepted is 1
Corinthians 7:1, “Now for the matters you wrote about: ‘It is good for a man not to have
sexual relations with a woman.’” What is clear in this verse is that Paul wants to respond
to something about which the Corinthians wrote to him in a letter (1 Cor. 7:1a). What is
less clear is whether the following statement in quotation marks is Paul’s response to the
Corinthians regarding their question, or whether in fact it is their question, and Paul is
simply quoting it before responding to it beginning in 1 Cor. 7:2 (1 Cor. 7:1b). Gordon
Fee’s 1980 article on 1 Corinthians 7:1 and his 1996 commentary and subsequent
commentary revision in 2014 demonstrate the shift the NIV made regarding the
interpretation of this verse.58 His argument not only addresses the translation of ἃπτεσθαι,
but also the insertion of quotation marks, suggesting it was the idea that the Corinthians
were supporting, not something Paul is teaching them.

57

The translations that do not use quotation marks in 1 Corinthians 6:12 and 10:23 are KJV, NKJV,
ASV, NASB.
58
Gordon D. Fee, “1 Corinthians 7:1 in the NIV.” Journal Of The Evangelical Theological Society
23.4 (December 1, 1980): 307-314.

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One of the more debated Corinthian slogans is found in 1 Corinthians 6:18, which
is translated in the NIV, “Flee from sexual immorality. All other sins a person commits
are outside the body, but whoever sins sexually, sins against their own body.” Some older
English translations do not include the word “other” as it is not in the Greek text. Most
current English translations, such as NIV, NLT, and ESV insert “other” as an attempt to
make sense of the adversative δὲ statement that follows as an exception to the “all” (πᾶν)
statement regarding sin.59
The difficulty with adding the word “other” into the text is the attention this
brings to Paul’s theology of sin and the body. One would then have to agree that sexual
sin is the only sin that is committed against the body. Not only does this ignore the
multitude of sins that have a very obvious and explicit effect on the human body, but it
also inadvertently creates a hierarchy of sins, with sexual sins being the most egregious.
There are only three English translations that have made the intentional choice to
view this instruction as a Corinthian slogan by placing quotation marks around it and
choosing not to include the word “other” in the text.60 By placing quotation marks around
“All sins are outside the body,” these translations are saying that this is what the
Corinthians believed, and Paul’s corrective instruction follows with, “but the immoral
person sins against his own body” (6:18b, NET).
In his article on 1 Cor. 6:12-20, Denny Burk explains the criteria he uses to
demonstrate a Corinthian slogan in 1 Cor. 6:18. First, this text has certain formal features

59
One must admit that even though a text can cause a modern reader difficulty, this does not
preclude a full understanding of the original audience.
60
The three translations that include quotation marks in 1 Cor. 6:18 are the World English Bible
(WEB, 2000), the Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB, 2004), and the New English Translation (NET,
2005). The NET translates 1 Cor. 6:18 this way: “Flee sexual immorality! “Every sin a person commits is
outside of the body”—but the immoral person sins against his own body.”

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24

that belong to the diatribe style. Second, Paul’s interlocutors are not imaginary but
represent real voices from the Corinthian church. Third, Burk offers a brief exegesis of
the text based largely on the work already done by Jerome Murphy-O’Connor.61 These
criteria echo some of the same features from Smith’s article.62
While debate continues about what constitutes a Corinthian slogan, what is not
debated is that in several places in this letter Paul addresses a concern or a question by
first using a phrase or idea, sometimes with specific terminology, that the Corinthians
were already using. This effective way of addressing concerns not only clarified for the
recipients his focus, but it also functions as a form of interpersonal connection.63
Smith, Hurd, Murphy-O’Connor, Omanson and Siebenmann have all advanced
the study of slogans in 1 Corinthians, but none of them include the term πνευματικός in
their study of words or slogans used by Corinthians in specific theological ways.64 Yet
the way Paul uses the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians demonstrates some of the
criteria Smith and others outline. Examples of this are the repeated use of a word in the
same letter; the vocabulary or theology that other contexts suggest is exclusively or
characteristically Corinthian; and the confirmation by others and the convergence of
multiple strands of evidence.65

61

Denny Burk, “Discerning Corinthian Slogans through Paul’s Use of the Diatribe in 1 Corinthians
6:12-20,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 18 (2008): 120.
62
Smith, 84-86.
63
Omanson and Smith among others have done a great job to begin outlining criteria by which
interpreters should make decisions about Corinthians slogans. Of course, this does not settle the matter, but
it does provide the framework for creating a standard that others can now refer to as they weigh the
evidence. There will still be disagreement along the way, but these criteria will be helpful to keep
misguided excitement from reaching beyond the evidence in the text.
64
Through personal correspondence via email, Smith has agreed that terms such as πνευματικός
belong in this conversation regarding Corinthian slogans.
65
Smith, 85-86.

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The difficulty is not only establishing that πνευματικός was a term some of the
Corinthians were using for their own purposes, but also determining what Paul wants the
Corinthians to understand by the way he is repeatedly using it. Anthony Thiselton states,
“It is difficult to be certain when Paul is citing slogans about ‘being spiritual’
(πνευματικός) as many Corinthians used the term, and when he is moving toward a
redefinition of ‘spiritual’ to mean reflecting the work of the Holy Spirit of God.”66 This
study must not only demonstrate that the term πνευματικός was used in a particular way
by some of the Corinthians, but also how Paul reasserted the regular understanding of the
term and thus argued for a certain understanding of the activity of the Spirit.67
In his 1973 dissertation The Pneumatikos-Psychikos Terminology, Birger Pearson
demonstrates that Paul uses the term πνευματικός because of its prevalence in the
Corinthian church. Pearson comments on Paul’s use of πνευματικός in chapter two of 1
Corinthians, “What is decisive in this passage is that Paul is dependent upon the
opponents’ terminology, but uses this terminology to express his own radically different
theological point of view.”68 For Pearson, Paul had no choice but to use the Corinthian
terminology to address what they were so passionate about, but he does so with a
“radically different theological point of view.” He understands Paul’s use of the term
πνευματικός quite differently than how he supposes the Corinthians to have understood
it. He writes,

66

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 225.
It is highly probable that Paul used the term πνευματικός in his preaching and teaching in Corinth,
which then was misunderstood or twisted in some way from Paul’s original intent. But even if he didn’t,
Galatians 6:1 gives us evidence that πνευματικός was a part of Paul’s vocabulary prior to his ministry in
Corinth and therefore it is still valid to say that Paul was “reasserting” the regular, or perhaps “Christian,”
view of this term.
68
Birger Albert Pearson, The Pneumatikos-Psychikos Terminology in 1 Corinthians: A Study in the
Theology of the Corinthian Opponents of Paul and Its Relation to Gnosticism, SBL Dissertation Series 12
(Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1973), 31.
67

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Paul is accommodating himself to the opponents’ terminology, but is radically reinterpreting it. For Paul the πνευματικός man is the one who walks according to
the Spirit of God in the light of what he has received from God (v. 12, cf. Rom. 8)
apart from any created potentiality in himself.69
Pearson’s description of Paul’s “radically different” view of πνευματικός should
not be understood as Paul inventing something new to present to the Corinthians, but
simply the distance between the two understandings of the term, and therefore
understandings of the Holy Spirit. This “distance” is demonstrated in the Corinthians
using the term to emphasize status in the community while Paul emphasized an
“influence of the Spirit.” Regarding the specific πνευματικός-ψυχικός terminology
pairing, Pearson writes, “Paul’s own use of this terminology constitutes, as it were, a reinterpretation of the opponents’ own terminology. It is for this reason, as we noted above
(p. 4f.), that Paul’s own use of this terminology is confined to his letter to the Corinthian
congregation.”70 Describing Paul’s usage as a re-interpretation is only helpful as a
comparison to the Corinthian usage of πνευματικός, as it does not appear Paul changes
the way he uses πνευματικός in comparison to the way he always used this term.71
Although there is still an active debate about some of the suggested slogans in 1
Corinthians among scholars today, it is conclusive that Paul has occasionally quoted the
Corinthians or repeated things the Corinthians had been saying or had written to justify
69
Pearson, 40. Perhaps a helpful correction would be that Paul is accommodating himself to his
opponents’ “view” of this terminology, and in his own usage, which would be consistent with the way he
uses it in his other letters (and perhaps the way he originally taught it in Corinth), it may have appeared to
some of the Corinthians as a radical re-interpretation.
70
Pearson, 26. While it is true that Paul’s own use of the πνευματικός-ψυχικὀς terminology is
confined to 1 Corinthians only, what Pearson fails to include is how Paul used the term πνευματικός alone
in his other letters, giving clues to how he is using it in 1 Corinthians. Of specific mention is the Galatians
6:1 occurrence, because Galatians precedes 1 Corinthians and therefore πνευματικός was not simply
“Corinthian terminology” but terminology that the Corinthians were mis-using according to Paul.
71
Although Paul does not change the way he uses this term in 1 Corinthians in comparison to how
he always used it (at least in all known Pauline letters), one might want to add that he is using the term
πνευματικός with special emphasis in 1 Corinthians because of the way the Corinthians had supposedly
been using the term.

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their behaviour and to promote their actions. To address Corinthian issues in a way that
was helpful and direct, Paul’s method was often to first quote the Corinthian slogan or
summarize their thoughts or attitudes, and then to proceed by responding to their
catchphrases with his own thoughts. The challenge, of course, is to develop consistent
principles for identifying when something is Paul’s teaching and when he is actually
quoting or summarizing statements from the Corinthians.
I will argue in this thesis that the term πνευματικός was used by Corinthian
leaders to express their theological ideas. There are two specific points to be made
concerning Paul’s use of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians. The first is that Paul used the
term πνευματικός often in 1 Corinthians because his method of correcting their behaviour
was to use the words and phrases they were using incorrectly, a similar approach to how
Paul repeated ideas through what Jay Smith refers to as “slogans.” The term πνευματικός
is not so much a Corinthian term as it is a Pauline term that the Corinthians were using
for a certain claim to status within the community. By repeating it back to them, Paul gets
their attention and helps them see their error. Second, it also appears that Paul also uses
the term πνευματικός consistently with his other letters, which means his purpose is for
them to understand this term and the theology of the Spirit in a way consistent with the
other churches, and perhaps consistent with how he taught them originally.
It appears that the Corinthians were using the term πνευματικός for selfpromotion, perhaps as a symbol of status in the community. Common Greek words such
as σοφία (wisdom) and τέλειος (mature) were also used alongside of πνευματικός. As
these uses are examined, it is not hard to see the inflated view that some in Corinth had of
themselves, perhaps even referring to themselves as οἱ πνευματικοί (1 Cor. 3:1). Paul

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addresses the arrogant and elitist attitudes regarding their status in the community by
using the term πνευματικός in a way that confronts their behaviour. This thesis will
demonstrate that Paul uses the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians to re-calibrate their
understanding of the work of the Spirit, along with the meaning of the term πνευματικός,
to something that was radically different from their current understanding. Paul
connected πνευματικός to the eschatological activity of the Spirit in order to have the
mind of Christ, to experience the presence of Christ, to engage the body of Christ, and to
benefit from the resurrection of Christ. This study will demonstrate that Paul’s usage of
πνευματικός not only exposes the incorrect view the Corinthians held and lived out, but
also demonstrates the way Paul would have wanted them to understand the term and the
theology behind the term.

1.4 Research Question and Thesis Statement
Paul’s repeated use of the Greek adjective πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians gives the
reader a clue that something unusual is going on in Paul’s response to the church in
Corinth.72 It should not seem unusual for Paul to use the term πνευματικός to interact
with any of his churches. What is unusual is the frequency with which he uses
πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians in comparison to all his other letters. This increased
frequency is what prompts the question of this project: Why does Paul repeatedly use
the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians?
Identifying the term πνευματικός as a Corinthian slogan or “buzz word” is crucial

72

The Greek adjective πνευματικός occurs in the New Testament twenty-six times and has no
occurrences in the Septuagint. Of the twenty-six occurrences in the New Testament, twenty-four are found
in Pauline epistles and fifteen of those in the letter of 1 Corinthians.

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to understanding how Paul was determined to address the Corinthian problems with their
own expressions.73 The diatribe discourse Paul employs to highlight the term
πνευματικός and the theology it represented to the Corinthians reveals the conflicted
understanding of this Greek adjective between the writer and recipients.
The thesis of this project will demonstrate that the Apostle Paul’s usage of the
Greek adjective πνευματικός in the letter of 1 Corinthians is a corrective response to the
distorted pneumatology of some in the Corinthian church. Whereas some in the church at
Corinth associated the meaning of πνευματικός with social status resulting in elitist and
exclusionary activity and behaviours, Paul uses the term πνευματικός to refer to the
agency, and thus the fruit of the Holy Spirit in every true believer. This corrective
response emerges primarily from Paul’s vision for an eschatological community of
Christ, empowered and living obediently to the Spirit. This vision is expressed through
God’s revelation in Christ, through exclusive fellowship with Christ, through the edifying
assembly of Christ, and through the resurrection of Christ, and all believers.

1.5 Overview of project
Chapter one, the introduction and current chapter, has sought to identify the
Corinthian problem and why Paul wrote 1 Corinthians. The context of this letter is one of
numerous interactions Paul and those of his travelling team had with the church in
Corinth. Each of these interactions built on the previous, whether by letter, someone
giving a report, or by a personal visit. 1 Corinthians is a letter of correction against the
divisive and exclusive behaviours that emerged among some of the believers in Paul’s

73

Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 5.

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absence. It occurs early in this history of exchange and so that later documents, such as 2
Corinthians, might reveal whether Paul was successful in re-calibrating the term
πνευματικός in the Corinthian church. Paul’s methodology of responding to the reports
and letter he received from Corinth in confronting these behaviours will be examined,
especially assessing the use of Corinthian slogans.74 Included in the broad sense of
understanding slogans are words or ideas that some in the church at Corinth championed
or used to justify their behaviour accordingly, and among these words and ideas was the
word πνευματικός, and the pneumatology that it represented to them. This section will
demonstrate how Paul used the term πνευματικός, radically different from how the
Corinthians were using it,75 as a way of addressing the concerns and questions of the
Corinthians with, and on, their terms. Chapter one concluded with the question this
project is asking, the corresponding hypothesis and a brief overview of each chapter.
Chapter two will examine the word formation of the Greek term πνευματικός,
beginning with a brief study of the corresponding noun πνεῦμα. The meaning of
πνευματικός will be explored through Greek grammars, theological dictionaries and
commentaries, most of which deal primarily with the New Testament writings. In this
chapter a working definition of πνευματικός will be established that will then be tested by
surveying the way the term is used in Greek literature. This chapter will also examine a
few other Greek terms that have a particular association with πνευματικός in the context

74
Gordon Fee’s argument against the 1984 NIV translation of 1 Cor. 7:1 was the impetus for
changes made in the 2002 TNIV and finally the 2011 NIV. His argument not only addresses the translation
of haptesthai, but also the insertion of quotation marks suggesting it was the idea that the Corinthians were
supporting, not something Paul is teaching them. Fee, “1 Corinthians 7:1 in the NIV,” 307-314.
75
Pearson, 40.

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of the letter of 1 Corinthians and have become important for this study, especially other
adjectives with -ικος endings such as ψυχικός and σαρκικός.
Chapter three will survey the occurrences of the term πνευματικός in Greek
literature predating the New Testament, examine all twenty-six occurrences of
πνευματικός in the New Testament, and also look at some of the occurrences in the
writings of the Church Fathers. The survey and examination of all of these occurrences of
πνευματικός will be compared with the working definition that was established in chapter
two. This chapter will demonstrate that there are some underlying consistencies in the
fundamental meaning of πνευματικός from the earliest writings to the Church Fathers.
What will also be demonstrated is a major shift in how it was used in the New Testament,
specifically to refer to the agency of the Spirit of God.
Chapter four will be the longest chapter of this project, investigating all fifteen
occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians in detail, noting the challenges the
Corinthians received from Paul and the specific and consistent way Paul uses the term
πνευματικός to address these challenges. The chapter will be made up of four sections,
each covering a portion of the letter where the term πνευματικός is used to a greater or
lesser extent to make his point.
The first section of chapter four will study 1 Corinthians 1-4, with the emphasis
on the four occurrences of πνευματικός in chapters two and three. The occurrences of
πνευματικός in these two chapters are the most crucial to this project. Paul confronts the
factions that have formed in the church at Corinth, the personality cults that form when a
group of people are distracted from the gospel by misguided rhetoric, and the quarrels

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and strife that occur as a result of these competing postures.76 Paul uses the term
πνευματικός alongside ψυχικός and σαρκικός in chapters two and three to reveal to the
Corinthians the difference between a life “of the flesh” and a life “of the Spirit.” Paul
ironically employs the term τέλειος77 in 2:6, communicating his assessment of their
current lack of Christian maturity.78 He then contrasts τέλειος (2:6) with νήπιος (3:1) to
reinforce his assessment and make clear that it is their jealousy and quarreling that gives
evidence of their childish posture which keeps them from being πνευματικός. In this
context the term πνευματικός does not function as the goal of maturity but the necessary
condition for adult living, which is a Christian identity that contains the fullness of the
Spirit’s work. The term πνευματικός, then, is Paul’s way of describing the work of the
Spirit in humanity, what might be explained as the process of sanctification and the
pursuit of holiness. The characteristics, or fruit, of such maturity will be seen to
contradict the jealousy and quarrels that are currently taking place in the church in
Corinth (1 Cor. 1:11; 3:3). Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in chapters two and three is
to describe a Spirit-animated identity that helps to bring people to maturity to make
decisions in a way that is aligned with God, or the purposes for which God has designed
humanity. Paul refers to this maturity of thinking, or this adult way of making decisions,
as “the mind of Christ” (1 Cor. 2:16).

76

“So then, no more boasting about human leaders! All things are yours, whether Paul or Apollos or
Cephas or the world or life or death or the present or the future—all are yours, and you are of Christ, and
Christ is of God” (1 Cor. 3:21-23).
77
The Greek word translated “mature” in 1 Cor. 2:6 is τέλειος, often meaning complete or perfect.
The KJV uses the word “perfect” in this verse. Thiselton suggests that this is an inappropriate translation. It
could be that Paul was sarcastic here and announcing he had words of wisdom for those who “have
arrived” is something that would have stung in Corinth. But the better understanding of Paul’s
announcement is simply to view τέλειος as a word meaning “spiritual adults” as Thiselton suggests.
Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 231.
78
Pearson is clear on this point, “We note here that the idea of perfection, maturity, is tied to the
achievement of σοφία.” Pearson, 28.

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The second section of chapter four will study 1 Corinthians 5-10, with most of the
emphasis on the three occurrences of πνευματικός in chapter ten. Paul’s challenge here is
specifically against the Corinthian error of pursuing freedom through γνῶσις
(knowledge). Paul confronts their pride that tolerated incest and prostitution (1 Cor. 5-6).
He confronts their sexual immorality and also answers their questions regarding sexuality
in marriage and singleness (1 Cor. 6-7). Paul then continues with an elaborate argument
in 1 Corinthians 8-10 against their claims to freedom as they permitted themselves the
attendance at temple meals. For some people in Corinth knowledge signaled freedom, but
the freedom they pursued was damaging to the fellowship of the church. Paul’s ultimate
goal in chapter ten was to warn the arrogant church members in Corinth that Israel, too,
had provisions from the Spirit and yet have failed. Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in
chapter ten is to describe a Spirit-animated fellowship that brings the focus to the
presence of Christ, and it is accompanied by a command to seek not their own good but
the good of many.
The third section of chapter four will study 1 Corinthians 11-14, with most of the
emphasis on the three occurrences of πνευματικός in chapters twelve and fourteen. Paul’s
challenge here is specifically against the Corinthian error of pursuing elitism through
χαρίσματα (spiritual gifts).79 Paul confronts their ignorance regarding the activity of the
Spirit of God, their desired uniformity as a replacement of unity, and their exclusion of
the poor and the less expressive in the assembly. Paul’s description of the church using
the metaphor of the body prioritizes the activity of the Spirit (πνευματικός) over the

79

The phrase “spiritual gifts” is used in many English translations and so it is an easy reference
point when discussing χαρίσματα. Throughout this project an effort has been made to translate χαρίσματα
without using the English term “gifts” as the meaning is something closer to “divine resources bestowed.”

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achievement of χαρίσματα. Gordon Fee suggests that Paul’s opening three verses in
chapter 12 help the reader understand the main point of chapters 12-14.80 For Fee, the
whole argument is about the activity of the Spirit of God. Paul is not saying they should
stop being ignorant about spiritual gifts (12:1), but that they should stop being ignorant
about the Spirit (or spiritual things, or spiritual matters). For Paul it is not a single
χάρισμα that demonstrates the gathered community as a body, but the multitude of
expressions or manifestations given by the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 12:7). Using the term
πνευματικός, Paul demonstrates his vision for a Spirit-animated assembly that forms a
unified expression of the body of Christ.
The fourth section of chapter four will study 1 Corinthians 15. Paul’s challenge
here is specifically against a false understanding of the resurrection, and perhaps even the
denial of the resurrection. Although it is somewhat difficult to determine exactly what the
Corinthians believed about the eternal state of believers, it appears that some did not
believe in the resurrection at all and others would have been more specifically against a
bodily resurrection or bodily eternal existence. To confront these false understandings of
last things and human bodies, Paul returns to the πνευματικός-ψυχικός association from
chapter two. Here Paul also includes χοϊκός (earthly) to emphasize the distinction of the
spiritual body and natural body. Although Paul’s argument does not explicitly promote
physical resurrection, it does promote a bodily resurrection, which may have physical
implications. For Paul the difference between πνευματικός and ψυχικός is not necessarily
physicality or visibility. Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in chapter fifteen is to
describe a Spirit-animated body that brings the focus to the resurrection of Christ as the

80

Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 638.

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firstfruits of many to come, and it is accompanied by a command to give themselves to
the work of the Lord.
Chapter five, the conclusion, will summarize the findings from each chapter of
the project. Although the Corinthians originally accepted the gospel that Paul preached,
and Paul’s gospel was demonstrated by the power of the Spirit of God (2:4-5), their
understanding and practice soon became distorted through their pursuits of wisdom,
knowledge, spiritual gifts, and false understandings of last things and human bodies.
Paul’s consistent use of the adjective πνευματικός (together with the related noun
πνεῦμα) in 1 Corinthians to describe the work of the Spirit of God countered the
Corinthians’ understanding of a Christian identity which ultimately resulted in pride,
exclusion, elitism, and a distorted eschatology. The work or activity of the Holy Spirit,
and thus the fruit of the Spirit, is required for something or someone to be described as
πνευματικός. In Paul’s understanding, the term πνευματικός always implies the πνεῦμα,
and most of the time this refers to the Spirit of God.

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CHAPTER TWO: The meaning of πνευματικός and related Greek terms
The meaning of the Greek adjective πνευματικός and the specific way the Apostle
Paul used it in the letter of 1 Corinthians is the primary focus of this project.81 The
following chapter investigates how the word πνευματικός was formed and how it has
generally been understood by scholars in grammar books, theological dictionaries and
commentaries in the context of the New Testament. This chapter will also examine a few
other Greek terms that have a particular association with πνευματικός in the letter of 1
Corinthians, and that have become important for this study. Of particular interest are the
terms ψυχικός and σαρκικός, adjectives with the -ικος ending.

2.1 The Greek noun πνεῦμα
The Greek term πνευματικός is a derivative adjective from the noun πνεῦμα
(wind, breath, spirit). The principal use and understanding of the Greek term πνεῦμα in
ancient Greek history is “wind” or “breath.” This is confirmed in the primary definition
of πνεῦμα in BDAG as “air in movement” like blowing or breathing.82 Prior to the
Hellenistic era, the word πνεῦμα was not used beyond these elemental forces.
Anthropological and divine uses of πνεῦμα did not appear until some of the Stoic
writings and the translation of the Septuagint (LXX).83 Today one might use ‘spirit’ to
refer to the inner self, to thoughts, intellect, or even emotions. But the ‘psychic’ part of
humanity was not associated with πνεῦμα prior to the Hellenistic era. In her book The
81

Rom. 1:11; 7:14; 15:27; 1 Cor. 2:13 (x2), 15; 3:1; 9:11; 10:3, 4 (x2); 12:1; 14:1, 37; 15:44 (x2),
46 (x2); Gal. 6:1; Eph. 1:3; 5:19; 6:12; Col. 1:9; 3:16; 1 Pet. 2:5 (x2). See Appendix A on page 167 for full
chart of all twenty-six occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament.
82
Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature, ed. Frederick W. Danker, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 832.
83
The Hebrew term ruach has a similar range of meanings to the Greek term πνεῦμα and no doubt
had influence on the LXX translators to choose πνεῦμα as the default equivalent.

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Concept of Spirit, Marie Isaacs states that “the term πνεῦμα was not used in this ‘psychic’
sense in pagan Greek literature.”84 The Greeks used ψυχή to refer to their inner thoughts
and θυμός to refer to their emotions.85
Isaacs’ research demonstrates that the use of the term πνεῦμα to describe the
divine presence and the ‘psychic’ part of humanity was first evident in Stoic writings and
in the LXX. This is also evident in the Septuagint, the Wisdom of Solomon (Wis) and
Philo. The Stoics did not have a dualism between spirit and matter and thus would have
used the term πνεῦμα for both the divine and for humans. Jews maintained a separation
between God and matter, and while insisting upon the perfection of God, would thus
include ἅγιον with πνεῦμα when applied to God.86 Isaacs remarks, “For the Jews there
could be no equation of God and the world, nor of the divine with matter.”87 Philo also
makes this distinction, viewing the πνεῦμα as the essence of divinity within a person.88
In the New Testament πνεῦμα is most often, but not exclusively, translated
“Spirit” and refers to the third person of the Trinity. There are other uses of πνεῦμα in the
New Testament that pertain to “breath,” “wind,” “inner part of a human,” as well as
“noncorporeal beings” (i.e. “evil spirits”).89 BDAG defines πνεῦμα as “air in movement”
like blowing or breathing, “that which animates or gives life to the body,” “a part of
human personality,” “an independent noncorporeal being,” and also “God’s being as
controlling influence, with focus on association with humans.”90 The term πνεῦμα does

84

Marie Isaacs, The Concept of Spirit. A Study of Pneuma in Hellenistic Judaism and its Bearing on
the New Testament [Heythrop Monographs 1] (London, UK: Heythrop College, 1976), 11.
85
Isaacs, The Concept of Spirit, 11.
86
Ibid., 19.
87
Ibid.
88
Ibid.
89
BDAG, 832.
90
BDAG, 832-836.

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not mean all of these things at the same time, and one should be cautious not to apply all
of them to the New Testament usage equally.
It is significant that πνεῦμα is not simply “air” but the “movement of air.” The
πνεῦμα was not understood as just a substance but an action, a life-giving force. This not
only clarifies why πνεῦμα was primarily used as “wind” and “breath,” but also how it
eventually came to mean ‘that which gives life to the body’ or other descriptions of lifeanimation. It will be demonstrated in the following chapter’s analysis of writings
predating the New Testament that the Greek adjective πνευματικός functioned similarly
as a dynamic reality versus a static one. What might this say for how we are to
understand God’s active presence or work in the life of the believer?
Another association that is important for this study is that of πνεῦμα and σοφία
(which will be discussed further below). Marie Isaacs states, “The author of Sap Sol not
only closely associates πνεῦμα and σοφία; he also uses terminology which stresses the
affinity (and sometimes the identification) of πνεῦμα/σοφία with God.”91 Isaacs suggests
here that in the Wisdom of Solomon the vapour of God’s breath (πνεῦμα) is associated
with wisdom. This association will be investigated more closely in chapter three.

2.2 The Greek adjective πνευματικός
The Greek term πνευματικός is a derivative adjective from the noun πνεῦμα that
was given an -ικος suffix. Derivative adjectives usually have a cognate noun they are
derived from and are not considered primary adjectives. Under the category of Secondary
or Derivative Adjectives, A.T. Robertson classifies Greek adjectives with –ινος and –ικος

91

Isaacs, 20.

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endings as substantives (i.e., essentially equivalent to a noun).92 Robert Van Voorst, on
the other hand, argues that the -ικος suffix has the significance of “belonging to,” which
would give the term πνευματικός the meaning of “belonging to the spirit.”93 This
classification is comparable to the adjective σαρκικός which derives from the noun σάρξ,
(flesh), meaning “belonging to the flesh.”
James Moulton states that the suffixes -ικός and -ινος emerged during the
classical period (in words such as φυσικός and μαντικός) after -κός was added to the -ιstem.94 While the suffix had its beginnings with the idea of “belonging to,” it “came into
common use with Attic writers in the latter part of the fifth century B.C., where the
meaning of ‘pertaining to,’ ‘with characteristics of,’ became prominent.”95 Moulton
explains that the difference between the suffixes -ικός and -ινος is that -ικός connotes
“like” and -ινος “made of,” which he suggests corresponds to that found in English
suffixes -y and -en (i.e. earthy and earthen). He concludes, “The termination -ινος
denotes a material relation, while -ικός denotes an ethical or dynamic relation, to the idea
involved in the root.”96
Moulton’s observations regarding the etymology of πνευματικός are consistent
with Gordon Fee’s conclusion that, “The word itself belongs to a class of adjectives
ending in

92

A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical
Research (Nashville, TN: Broadman Press, 1934), 158.
93
Robert E. Van Voorst, Building Your New Testament Greek Vocabulary (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans), 8. James Moulton and Wilbert Francis Howard. A Grammar of New Testament Greek. Vol. II.
Accidence and Word-Formation (New York, NY: T & T Clark, 1968), 378.
94
James Moulton, 359, 378.
95
Moulton, 378.
96
Ibid.

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-ικός, formed from their corresponding nouns and bearing the meaning, ‘belonging to, or
pertaining to,’ the corresponding noun.”97 The meaning of πνευματικός as “belonging to
or pertaining to the πνεῦμα” is then a good foundation with which to start.
As indicated earlier, the adjective πνευματικός is derived from the noun πνεῦμα
(meaning “air in movement, blowing, breathing”). It would eventually come to mean
“that which animates or gives life to the body, breath, (life-)spirit.”98 Prior to Christian
writing, πνεῦμα would predominantly have been used to talk about the wind or one’s
breath, which can therefore lead to a secondary deduction, namely, that which indicates
the presence life. The corresponding adjective πνευματικός should also be understood in
this way. Regarding the term πνευματικός, Gordon Fee notes, “This is another of the
words in the NT that bears a strong Pauline stamp. It does not occur in the LXX. In
classical and Hellenistic Greek it had to do primarily with wind or air; thus it is found
only rarely in Hellenistic texts as an adjective pertaining to the human πνεῦμα.”99
The third edition of BDAG defines the adjective πνευματικός as “pertaining to
spirit as inner life of a human being, spiritual” and “having to do with the (divine) spirit,
caused by or filled with the (divine) spirit, pertaining/corresponding to the (divine)
spirit.”100 Although fairly consistent with the first and second editions, it is interesting to
notice Danker’s revision from capital “S” Spirit to lower case “s” spirit. Either Danker
thought it redundant because of the word “divine” in parentheses or he is introducing a
shift away from the assumption that this adjective is always referring to the activity of

97
Gordon D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul, (Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 29.
98
BDAG, 832.
99
Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 29.
100
BDAG, 837. See Appendix C on page 169 for a detailed comparison of the definition of the
Greek term πνευματικός in all three editions.

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God’s Spirit in the New Testament.101
The shift Danker makes from “Spirit” to “spirit” is consistent with one of the
definitions from the first and second editions which simply acknowledges the inner life of
a human being. From this definition there is no significant distinction between “Spirit”
and “spirit” when translating πνευματικός. As a result, it is largely from the context in
which the term πνευματικός is found that one must determine whether the “spirit” under
discussion is human, divine or evil.
The focus of the article by Albert Schweitzer in the Theological Dictionary of the
New Testament (TDNT) leans more toward capital “S” Spirit, while acknowledging that
each use of the term is unique. Schweitzer says that when πνευματικός is used in contrast
to ψυχικός it is specifically referring to the Spirit of God, which is a fair point as most
scholars understand the adjective ψυχικός to describe the person without the Spirit, or
simply the natural person.102 When πνευματικός is used to modify impersonal nouns,
Schweitzer resists descriptions like “bearing” and prefers words of “origin” or “source”
(“from”). For example, when Paul describes food, water, and a rock as πνευματικός,
these objects do not “bear” the Spirit but are “from” the Spirit. One might add that
impersonal objects can also have significance beyond their material properties when it is
the Spirit of God who provides them, or uses them, for purposes of revelation.
Although some commentaries do not specifically comment on the meaning of
πνευματικός, several do and it remains consistent with these scholars that πνευματικός in

101
Danker could also be indicating that “Spirit” is a way of speaking about divine power or agency,
but not about God himself.
102
Albert Schweitzer, “πνευματικός.” Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, eds. Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT), Translated by G.W. Bromiley. Volume 6 (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1964-1976), 436.

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the New Testament pertains to the Spirit of God in some way. Gordon Fee is more
specific regarding the application to people even though some of these occurrences are
describing impersonal things. He states, “In its 24 occurrences in Paul’s letters it is
almost always an adjective referring to the Holy Spirit, and ordinarily means ‘people who
have the Spirit.’ Unfortunately, the traditional rendering ‘spiritual’ (as e.g., the NRSV,
ESV, NAB and most others) leads the reader in every imaginable wrong direction.”103
Fee concludes that the use of πνευματικός when describing people is to indicate the
presence of the Spirit who enables, as opposed to some intuitive process of discernment
or evaluation of spiritual things.104
Joseph Fitzmyer acknowledges the various nouns that πνευματικός modifies, yet
concludes in a manner similar to Fee, “It modifies diverse things (food, drink, rock, body,
and persons), which are always thought to be under the influence of God’s Spirit in some
way.105 Sometimes it is contrasted with psychikos, ‘animated’ (2:14; 15:44 bis, 46);
sometimes with sarkinos (sarkikos), “fleshy” (3:1, 3 bis; 9:11).”106 One might have to
probe Fitzmyer’s definition of ψυχικός to understand that he is referring to the
comparison that is created between animated by the Spirit versus animated by the flesh.
His description of “under the influence of God’s Spirit in some way” is consistent with
other scholars as well as the working definition of πνευματικός in this project.
In explanation of the “spiritual” food, drink, and rock in 1 Corinthian 10, C.K.
Barrett makes a notable observation that although this food, drink, and rock was

103

Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 130.
Ibid., 125.
105
Barrett suggests that “further significance” of inanimate objects described as πνευματικός may be
symbolic or typical, as in the Christian sacrament. Barrett, 222.
106
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, I Corinthians [The Anchor Yale Bible, Volume 32] (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 2008), 182.
104

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πνευματικός, it was also material. Barrett concludes, “The word (πνευματικός) is usually
employed by Paul to denote some thing (or person) that is the bearer or agent of the Holy
Spirit.”107 For his part, Nighswander comments in his essay on spirituality in 1
Corinthians, “For Paul, it was always about the Holy Spirit.”108
Witherington observes something similar regarding the occurrence of
πνευματικός alongside ψυχικός in 1 Corinthians 15 where Paul argues for a “bodily”
resurrection. Because “spirit” is typically understood as immaterial, a πνευματικός body
might easily be misunderstood as an oxymoron. But if πνευματικός refers to the agency
of a noun rather than its non-physicality, then the focus changes from what this body is
made of or what it looks like, to how this body operates or in what way is this body given
ability or from what source it obtains meaning? Drawing from Harris’ book Raised
Immortal, Witherington writes:
As has been pointed out by M. Harris, adjectives or qualifiers ending in -ikon
normally carry an ethical or functional meaning. It is unlikely that Paul means by
sōma pneumatikon (v.44) a ‘body made up of spirit.’ That would be a non
sequitur, since Paul elsewhere assumes that spirit is immaterial. He means, rather,
that the resurrection body will be animated and empowered by the Spirit, just as
the present physical body (the sōma psychikon) is animated and empowered by a
physical life principle or force, which the creation story says God breathed into
human beings.109
In his commentary on 1 Corinthians, Anthony Thiselton writes, “For Paul new

107

Barrett, 222. Although “things” are not usually described as “bearing” or having “agency,”
Barrett explains that these objects were “used by the Spirit as visible prophecies of what was still to be
established.” Barrett might have also included the words “influenced by” or “identified with” to signal that
inanimate objects are usually tools or instruments and not agents.
108
Dan Nighswander, 1 Corinthians [Believers Church Bible Commentary] (Harrisonburg, VA:
Herald Press, 2017), 370.
109
Ben Witherington III, Conflict and Community in Corinth (Grand Rapids: MI: Eerdmans, 1995),
308. Murray Harris, Raised Immortal: Resurrection and Immortality in the New Testament. (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1985), 112. In addition, it may also describe a body that is completely suitable for a realm
in which πνεῦμα is the dominating essence, rather than σάρξ or ψυχή.

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creation and transformation came from beyond and were constituted by the agency of the
Holy Spirit, not an immanent human spirit.”110 Thiselton partly bases his argument on
Paul’s use of the term ψυχικός in contrast to πνευματικός, writing, “the term ψυχικός
stands in contrast to that which is animated and motivated by God’s Spirit.”111 More
specifically, Thiselton states, “We believe that this is a decisive indication that Paul
wishes the adjectival form πνευματικός to be understood as meaning of the Spirit (of
God), and not as the more bland spiritual, which allows for the very misunderstanding
which Paul wishes to exclude.”112
In his book on The Holy Spirit, Thiselton is quite emphatic about how the term
πνευματικός is used in the New Testament. Commenting on Paul’s use of πνευματικός in
1 Corinthians 12, he writes, “It is crystal clear, and impossible to deny, that when Paul
uses the Greek word pneumatikos, ‘spiritual,’ he is alluding specifically to the agency,
work, and effects of the Holy Spirit, for whom the lordship of Jesus Christ has become
the supreme criterion (1 Cor. 12:3).”113 Thiselton narrows his definition of πνευματικός
to Paul’s usage in the New Testament which is consistent with the definition of
πνευματικός in this project and the survey that follows of all twenty-four occurrences in
Pauline letters.
It makes sense that πνευματικός would have a more general definition of
“pertaining to the πνεῦμα” during a time when πνεῦμα was used predominantly as
“breath” or “wind.” But in the Christian era, and especially in New Testament writings,

110
Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text
[NIGNT] (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 1283.
111
Ibid, 267.
112
Ibid, 265.
113
Anthony C. Thiselton, The Holy Spirit: In Biblical Teaching, through the Centuries, and Today
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 471.

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πνεῦμα was used mainly to refer to the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Trinity.
Gordon Fee states, “Since the word πνεῦμα primarily refers to the Holy Spirit in Paul,
one might expect the corresponding adjective to function similarly.”114 And so the
general definition of πνευματικός (“pertaining to the πνεῦμα”) takes on more specificity
in Christian writing, as “belonging to, or pertaining to, the Spirit of God.” If people or
things pertain to the Spirit of God, they bear the influence and effect of the Spirit, and are
energized or animated by the agency of the Spirit. The term πνευματικός then, as it is
used in the New Testament, means “the influence of the Spirit’s agency in a person or
thing.” The way this influence is expressed in specific contexts, especially in 1
Corinthians, will be the focus of chapters three and four of this project.

2.3 The Greek adjective ψυχικός
The Greek term ψυχικός (natural) is also a derivative adjective with the -ικος
ending. It is derived from the noun ψυχή (soul), which BDAG defines as “life on earth in
its animating aspect making bodily function possible.”115 The term ψυχή is is another
term that is multivalent in meaning, but generally is used in the Septuagint and New
Testament to refer to that which gives flesh and bones function or animation. Without the
agency of ψυχή, one would simply be flesh and bones. The point for now is that the use
of the adjective ψυχικός describes something that is “of the ψυχή,” or “that which
pertains to the ψυχή.”
Although ψυχή is generally an invisible, noncorporeal entity, the focus of ψυχικός
is not its substance but its agency or its effect. As BDAG demonstrates, it is difficult to

114
115

Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 30.
BDAG, 1098.

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define this word without relating it to πνευματικός, or defining it by the English gloss
“unspiritual,” which is merely the negation of “spiritual” that translations of English
Bibles provide for πνευματικός.
One of the preferred ways of understanding both πνευματικός and ψυχικός is in
relation to each other as opposites. The opposition centres around the πνεῦμα:
πνευματικός is pertaining to the πνεῦμα and ψυχικός is pertaining to the absence of
πνεῦμα. The confusing part is that πνεῦμα and ψυχή are sometimes used synonymously
in Greek literature, including the meaning in the New Testament, and so one must
conclude that the use of these terms is not completely consistent.116
There is only one occurrence of ψυχικός in the Septuagint and six in the New
Testament.117 Of the six found in the New Testament, four occur in 1 Corinthians. The
remaining two can be found in James 3:15 and Jude 19. In James 3:15, the author is
referring to a wisdom (σοφία) that “comes from above” (heaven?), as opposed to all other
wisdom, which he describes with three different words: earthly (ἐπίγειος), unspiritual
(ψυχικός), and demonic (δαιμονιώδης). The intent is not to understand these three terms
synonymously, but to emphasize various realms that are not the source of God’s wisdom.
The message James proclaims using the term ψυχικός is that the wisdom of God is not to
be found in the natural self, or the enlivened human being (the gloss “unspiritual” is not
the preferred understanding for the meaning of ψυχικός).

116
Or at the very least, these terms have a wider semantic range that needs to be accounted for than
is sometimes noted in the literature, e.g., on some occasions Paul seems to be using πνεῦμα
anthropologically: Rom. 1:9; 11:8; 12:11; 1 Cor. 5:4; 14:14; 16:18; 2 Cor. 2:13; 7:13; Gal. 6:18; 1 Thess.
5:23; 2 Thess. 2:22; Tim. 4:22.
117
The one occurrence in the Septuagint is in 4Mac. 1:32, translated as “mental” in the NRSV. The
author is distinguishing desires that are ψυχικός (mental) and σωματικός (physical).

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In Jude 19, the author explicitly lays out the definition of ψυχικός as pertaining to
those who do not have the Spirit, saying, “These are the people who divide you, who
follow mere natural instincts and do not have the Spirit.” Here Jude is warning against
“scoffers” (Jude 18) whose actions divide people and this is because they are ψυχικός,
translated in the NIV as those “who follow mere natural instincts.” What is important to
recognize here is that they must rely upon human sources of wisdom which are deficient
because they have no access to divine revelation. Jude concludes that they are ψυχικός
because they “do not have the Spirit” (πνεῦμα μὴ ἔχοντες).
It is important that ψυχικός is not assumed to be of evil disposition just because it
is “without the Spirit.”118 Although without Spirit the natural self is also a sinful self, the
focus of ψυχικός is not so much “evil” or “sinful” as it is “natural” and therefore
incapable of receiving divine revelation. This is clarified in 1 Corinthians 2-3, where Paul
juxtaposes πνευματικός with ψυχικός in chapter two and with σαρκικός in chapter three.
In chapter two, the distinction seems to be having or not having the Spirit. In chapter
three, the distinction is living by the Spirit or not living by the Spirit. Both ψυχικός and
σαρκικός are set in opposition to πνευματικός, but ψυχικός is positioned in a more neutral
state (limited to human wisdom), whereas σαρκικός is definitely choosing a life contrary
to the Spirit even while having access to the wisdom of God.
The three other occurrences of ψυχικός in 1 Corinthians are found in chapter
fifteen (twice in 15:44 and once in 15:46). Including the occurrence in 1 Corinthians
2:14, all four of these occurrences directly relate to Paul’s usage of πνευματικός. Not

118

Quoting from Robertson and Plummer, Thiselton writes, “ψυχικός is used of a man whose
motives do not rise above the level of merely human needs and aspirations.” Thiselton, The First Epistle to
the Corinthians, 267.

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only does Paul use the term ψυχικός in opposition to his use of the term πνευματικός, but
there is not another instance in all Greek literature where these two words are found in
relation to each other.
Birger Albert Pearson’s 1973 dissertation called The Pneumatikos-Psychikos
Terminology takes a closer look at the relationship of this terminology.119 While some of
Pearson’s observations are no longer as much of a concern to modern scholarship, like
gnostic influences in Paul’s writings, his research not only demonstrates the meaning of
πνευματικός as “pertaining to the πνεῦμα” in the sense of the Spirit of God, but shows
how this meaning is reinforced more specifically with Paul’s usage of the corresponding
term ψυχικός. This association will be further developed in chapters three and four of this
project.

2.4 The Greek adjectives σαρκικός and σάρκινος
The Greek adjective σαρκικός is a derivative of the noun σάρξ and is best
understood as meaning simply “pertaining to the σάρξ.” While σάρξ is most often
translated “flesh,” it is used by both Septuagint and New Testament authors literally
(“material that covers the bones of a human or animal body”)120 as well as figuratively
(either “of the earth/world or human” [1 Cor. 1:26] or “evil desire” [Gal. 5:16]). The term
σαρκικός denotes both of these two major meanings.
Robertson states, “Σαρκ-ικός (from σάρξ, Arist., Plut., LXX) is a man who lives
according to the flesh and is here opposed to those who are πνευματ-ικοί (from πνεῦμα,

119

Pearson, The Pneumatikos-Psychikos Terminology in 1 Corinthians.
BDAG, 914. Also included in this sense is the physical body itself, the ancestral and mortal
nature of a being human, or simply the outward part of being human.
120

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from Arist. down, but not in LXX, pertaining to the wind).”121 While Robertson’s term
“opposed” might be too strong, or at the very least requires more context, it is evident
that while these two terms have the same endings, theologically they are opposite in
meaning.122
The term σαρκικός occurs in the New Testament seven times, six in the Pauline
corpus.123 The only non-Pauline occurrence is found in 1 Pet. 2:11, where the author
warns of “sinful desires” (σαρκικός) which wage war against your soul (ψυχή).124
Following the logic of the previous -ικός words, σαρκικός is best understood in the New
Testament as “pertaining to the σάρξ.” Then one must investigate the context to
determine if the adjective is describing something physical or figurative.
The adjective σάρκινος also derives from σάρξ and is often regarded as a
synonym of σαρκικός. Van Voorst points out that adjectives with the -ινος suffix have the
significance of “material” or “type.”125 Although these two adjectives are often translated
similarly (i.e. “of the flesh”), σαρκικός indicates that something “belongs to the flesh,”
while σάρκινος indicates that something is actually “made of flesh.” An example is
where Paul writes to the Corinthians, “Forasmuch as ye are manifestly declared to be the
epistle of Christ ministered by us, written not with ink, but with the Spirit of the living

121

Robertson, 158.
Robertson also adds that, “ὁ ψυχ-ικός (from ψυχή, Arist., Polyb., down) is the man possessed of
mere natural life (1 Cor. 2:14) as opposed to regenerate (πνευματ-ικός) life (1 Cor. 2:15).” Here it is clear
for Robertson that the difference between these terms is not just one of physicality, but the πνευματικός life
is one of regeneration. Robertson, 158-159.
123
The term σαρκικός occurs in Rom. 15:27; 1 Cor. 3:3 (x2); 9:11; 2 Cor. 1:12; 10:4; 1 Pet. 2:11.
124
The definition of ψυχή here remains the same as what has been stated earlier on page 45 (“life on
earth in its animating aspect making bodily function possible”). However, here the author seems to go
slightly beyond bodily function to relate to what might be the ψυχή without the body. Bauer calls it, “a
condition in which it no longer makes contact with the physical structure it inhabited, whereupon it leaves
the realm of earth and lives on in Hades or some other place outside the earth.” BDAG, 1098.
125
Van Voorst, 8. Robertson suggests that σάρκ-ινος must mean more than “made of flesh” but
“rooted in the flesh.” Robertson, 158.
122

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God; not in tables of stone, but in fleshy tables of the heart.” (2 Cor. 3:3, KJV). Here the
word “fleshy” is σάρκινος, referring to the human flesh where God will write on the flesh
with his Spirit as opposed to tablets of stone.126

2.5 The Greek noun σοφία
The Greek word σοφία (wisdom) occurs fifty-one times in the New Testament.
Seventeen of the twenty-eight occurrences in Paul’s letters occur in 1 Corinthians and the
first fifteen appear in chapters one and two, making the opening two chapters a unique
context based in which to investigate the meaning of σοφία in early Christianity. No less
important in 1 Corinthians are the eleven occurrences of the adjective σοφός (wise), ten
of which occur in the first three chapters.
The Greek noun σοφία is normally translated “wisdom” in the New Testament.
The term σοφία can certainly mean “wisdom” in a general way, like, “understanding” or
“insight,” or “the capacity to understand and function accordingly.”127 But there are at
least two traditions or associations that could be in focus with the use of this term in the
Pauline corpus.
One of these traditions is the Jewish wisdom tradition which emerges from the
Sapiential Books of the Septuagint: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of
Solomon, the Book of Wisdom and Ben Sirach.128 The first five are accepted universally
in the biblical canon while the last two are found in the Apocrypha, considered
deuterocanonical by Roman Catholics. Ben Sirach is a Hebrew composition that was

126

This use of σάρκινος is found in direct quotations from the LXX in Ezekiel 11:19 and 36:26.
BDAG, 934.
128
Not all of the Psalms are regarded as belonging to the Wisdom tradition.
127

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translated into Greek in Alexandria around 130 BC. The Wisdom of Solomon was
originally written in Greek, but its date is contested.
The author of Job sums up what is at the heart of this wisdom tradition with the
phrase: “The fear of the Lord – that is wisdom” (Job 28:28a).129 Wisdom in the Jewish
tradition is often personified, accompanying God in all creation. According to N.T.
Wright, “[T]hese books speak of Israel’s calling and destiny in language borrowed from
the traditions about the creation of the world and humankind. YHWH’s ‘wisdom’ was the
means by which he created the world.”130 Wright elaborates further in his book Paul and
the Faithfulness of God: “To speak of this ‘wisdom’ is … to speak of the creator God as
good, wise, fruitful, utterly and beautifully creative and inventive, unveiling creation as
the theatre of his spectacular and harmonious work.”131
It is also important to consider the way God acts in creation. Wright suggests that
if human beings are the means by which God acts in the world, and God only acts
through wisdom, then it is very important to acquire such wisdom in order to be God’s
obedient agents, thereby becoming truly human.132 Acquiring wisdom was a strong
emphasis in the intertestamental period, but with the focus of wisdom turned toward
Torah. Wright comments, “In the intertestamental period ‘Wisdom’ was identified with

129

The phrase “fear of the Lord” occurs in the Old Testament twenty times. Job 28:28 might be the
most significant occurrence of the phrase, even though it is the only occurrence in Job. Job 28 is a chapter
devoted completely to understanding God’s wisdom, which for humankind begins by understanding that it
comes from God and therefore one’s posture toward God should be one of receptivity and respect (i.e. “fear
of the Lord”). Three times this phrase is used in psalm lyrics, and another ten times in Proverbs. Isaiah
picks up this phrase on three occasions and there are also three occurrences in 2 Chronicles. The only New
Testament occurrence is in Acts 9:31, a summary statement of the peace that was enjoyed after Paul’s
conversion. The usage of the corresponding verb φοβέομαι is also significant to understand the “fear of the
Lord” (see Col. 3:22; cf. Ex. 1:17-21; 14:31).
130
Wright, God’s People, 264.
131
Wright, Paul, 671.
132
Wright, God’s People, 265.

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Torah. Those who possessed and tried to keep Torah were therefore the true humanity: it
was they who would be exalted to the place where humanity belonged, under the creator
and over the creation.”133
It is not difficult to see why some in Corinth had an inflated view of wisdom
because of the empowering presence of the Spirit in their lives. The association of
Wisdom and πνεῦμα is already seen in Stoic writings. Wright argues that “it draws on
Platonic and Stoic ideas in order to present the figure of ‘Wisdom’ as occupying the place
in the divinely created and ordered cosmos which in the Stoics was taken by the logos or
the pneuma.”134 This then plays out in the lives of those pursuing Wisdom, even if for all
the wrong reasons. Wright concludes, “And, exactly as in Stoicism, ‘ethics’ follows
naturally: what humans need is precisely this ‘wisdom’, in order to know the secrets of
how the world works and so to develop the consequent life of virtue.”135 This is why
wisdom speaks to the identity of God’s people, because it is their vocation, their very
purpose, to be agents of God’s wise acts in the world. Those who were associated with
wisdom would then be regarded as people with the secret knowledge of God.136
The other association for the term σοφία is the Sophistic tradition of ancient
Greece, beginning around the second half of the fifth century B.C. Somewhat distinct
from philosophy, sophists applied σοφία in their teaching of technique and skill in
rhetoric. This application of wisdom became suspect for some, such as Socrates and
Plato, because these sophists not only received payment for their services, which the
133

Wright, People of God, 265.
Wright, The Faithfulness of God, 239.
135
Ibid.
136
Already in the 3rd century BC the LXX connects the Torah with wisdom and understanding. This
is demonstrated for example in Deut. 4:6, “Observe them carefully, for this will show your wisdom and
understanding to the nations, who will hear about all these decrees and say, “Surely this great nation is a
wise and understanding people.”
134

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philosophers did not, but there seemed to be an emphasis placed on the best teachers and
because of this some sophists began to increase their rates. This controversy is especially
noted regarding Aristotle as a paid tutor for Alexander the Great.
Bruce Winter offers strong evidence in his book Philo and Paul Among the
Sophists that the rise of the Second Sophistic did not begin in late first century, or even
second century AD, as some have supposed, but in the early part of the first century.137
Presenting six primary sources from the first century, including the Corinthian letters,
Winter demonstrates that what came to be known as the Second Sophistic was “already
flowering if not flourishing” in the first half of the first century.138
The title of sophist, or σοφιστής, referred to an ancient wise man, but by the first
century AD, as Winter notes, “it was used to designate those rhetoricians whose ability in
oratory was such that they could both secure a public following and attract students to
their schools.”139 Under the tutelage and training of the sophists, students became experts
in law, politics, language, culture, mathematics, and several other spheres of life. Winter
states, “[T]hey trained the next generation of the social elite to argue in the criminal and
civil courts and debate in the secular assemblies as they did.”140
The sophists were then both highly regarded debaters and declaimers in the city
and sought-after teachers for the sons of the elite. Winter notes:
Parents expected the sophist to make public speakers of their sons, for they judged
that this form of education was most useful in producing leaders accomplished in
the great art of persuasion whether it be in the legal courts or the council or
political assembly of their city.141

137

Winter, Philo and Paul, 1-2.
Winter, Philo and Paul, 4.
139
Winter, Philo and Paul, 3-4.
140
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 33.
141
Winter, Philo and Paul, 5.
138

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Winter also demonstrates how competitive these sophists were, and thus the
undivided loyalty expected of their students to boast in their teacher, thus inflating their
reputation. Arguments, debates, and much jealousy characterized this movement, creating
division, pride, and a striving for status among the elite. One does not have to work hard
to make the connections of this association of wisdom to the concerns in Corinth.
Paul’s critique of the σοφία that caused quarrels and jealousy begins in 1
Corinthians 1:10 and comes to a point of thesis in verse seventeen, “For Christ did not
send me to baptize, but to preach the gospel—not with wisdom and eloquence, lest the
cross of Christ be emptied of its power” (1 Cor. 1:17). Following verse seventeen Paul
challenges the wisdom of both Jews and Greeks to match wits with the message of a
crucified Messiah Thus his approach to both of these potential influences is the same.
Thiselton writes:
Both traditions and both critiques, therefore, come together in v. 17 as a
transitional verse which introduces the main contrast between the ‘power’ or
operative effects of the cross and the ‘weakness’ or inoperative attempts
generated by ‘wisdom’ on the part of the Gentiles ‘Greeks’ and the Jews (1:1831).142
What is most important, then, for the purposes of this project is to recognize the
that term σοφία (wisdom) is not only referring to being a wise person, but also refers to a
status symbol within the community. Some in Corinth, who had certain expressive
χαρίσματα (grace bestowed, or spiritual gifts), seemed to view this “possession” as selfachievement which earned them a πνευματικός status in the community as it related to
σοφία. Paul confronted this arrogant and elitist mentality head on with the gospel of a
142

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 145.

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crucified Messiah, and demonstrated a different approach to wisdom, as will be shown in
chapter four of this project.

2.6 Summary of πνευματικός and other related Greek terms
Establishing the meaning of πνευματικός and of various related terms, especially
in the Pauline corpus, helps us to understand the context of Paul’s usage of πνευματικός
in 1 Corinthians. In the following chapters, especially chapter four, it will become more
evident how each of these terms and the way that Paul used them to convey meaning to
the Corinthians is integral to understanding Paul’s reason for writing 1 Corinthians, and
more importantly for this study, the reasons for the repeated use of the term πνευματικός
in the letter.
What is important to restate in this summary is that πνευματικός is a derivative
Greek adjective from the noun πνεῦμα and is best understood in the New Testament as
“pertaining to the πνεῦμα.” Most occurrences of the term πνεῦμα in the New Testament
refer to the Spirit of God, although there are occasions when this is not the case. The
same is true for the term πνευματικός.

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CHAPTER THREE: The term πνευματικός in Greek literature
The meaning of the Greek adjective πνευματικός and the specific way Paul used it
in the letter of 1 Corinthians is the primary focus of this project.143 The term πνευματικός
does not occur at all in the Septuagint (LXX), but there are sixty-four occurrences of
πνευματικός that predate the New Testament, including eight occurrences in Philo. There
are also numerous occurrences of πνευματικός in first and second century non-canonical
writings including the Apostolic Fathers.
This chapter will survey the occurrences of πνευματικός in Greek writings,
starting with literature predating the New Testament. It will examine all twenty-six
occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament (with only brief comments at this
point about the occurrences in 1 Corinthians), and also look at some of the occurrences in
the writings of the Early Church Fathers. The usage of πνευματικός in all of these
passages will then be compared to the working definition that was established in chapter
two.

3.1 Occurrences of πνευματικός in writings predating the New Testament
There are sixty-four occurrences of πνευματικός in Greek literature predating the
writings of the New Testament. Most of these occurrences use the term πνευματικός to
describe something about the effect of wind or the function of breath.
The first four recorded occurrences of πνευματικός in Greek literature date back
to the sixth and fifth centuries BC in the following pre-Socratic philosophers:

143

Rom. 1:11; 7:14; 15:27; 1 Cor. 2:13 (x2), 15; 3:1; 9:11; 10:3, 4 (x2); 12:1; 14:1, 37; 15:44 (x2),
46 (x2); Gal. 6:1; Eph. 1:3; 5:19; 6:12; Col. 1:9; 3:16; 1 Pet. 2:5 (x2). See Appendix A on page 167 for full
chart of all twenty-six occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament.

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Anaximenes, Diogenes, Empedocles, and Democritus. Of these four philosophers, only
some of the work of Empedocles has survived; the other three we learn about in other
writings. Where Empedocles uses the term πνευματικός is in reference to the lifeblood
and “breath” in animals. All four pre-Socratic uses of the term πνευματικός refer to
elemental forces such as breath, wind, and water.
Aristotle uses the term πνευματικός seventeen times in the fourth century BC.144
In one of these fragments the author writes, ὅ τε δὴ χθμὸς καὶ κρᾶσις ἡ τῆς μελαίνης
χολῆς πνευματικά ἐστιν (“Now both the juice of the grape and the atrabilious
temperament are full of breath”).145 Here the author uses the term πνευματικός to
describe the swelling of the grape, presumably noting the increase of air, or movement of
air, that causes expansion in the juice of the grape in the fermentation process.
In Aristotle’s Generation of Animals, he writes about the τῷ πνευματικῷ μορίῷ
(“the part that is concerned with the pneuma”).146 Here Aristotle describes how the action
of breathing interferes with hearing, especially breathing out or yawning. The term
πνευματικός is used to describe what is central to the concern for Aristotle, being the
movement of air. In this translation, the gloss provided is simply “concerned with the
pneuma” and seems to be more of a reference to the effect of breath than the breath itself.
Theophrastus, a favourite student of Aristotle, also uses the term πνευματικός in
his work, much of which has to do with plants and animals. For example, the first of two
occurrences of πνευματικός in De Causis Plantarum reads, καὶ εἰ τοιαύτη τοῦ ἀέρος ἡ

144
Eleven of those fourteen occurrences are in the works called “Problems” which are sometimes
called pseudo-Aristotelian because of questions surrounding its authenticity.
145
T.E. Page, ed., Aristotle, Problems II, Translated by W.S. Hett (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1937), 158-159.
146
G.P. Goold, ed., Aristotle, Generation of Animals, Translated by A.L. Peck (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1942), 506-507.

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ψυχρότης ὥστε ἔνυδρός τις εἶναι καὶ μὴ πνευματική (“again the seeds are more stubborn
when the coldness of the air is of a damp sort and not windy”).147 Here we see
πνευματικός translated “windy” in the context of describing damp air, as opposed to the
dryness that comes with wind.
The second occurrence in De Causis Plantarum is found in the context of
fragrance and the changes in the flavour of fruit due to πνευματική (translated by K.K.
Link as simply “pneuma,” with a footnote, “The pneuma accounts for expansion and
volatility … it accounts for the distension (and dropping) of the unripe fig”).148 The
author here uses πνευματικός to demonstrate the process and effect swelling (or ripening)
has on the flavour of fruit, not unlike the way Aristotle did before him.149
The term πνευματικός is used only eight times in the works of Philo. In his work
On the Creation in section 67, line 11, Philo uses the term πνευματικός to describe that
which can produce breath:, τὴν δὲ πνευματικὴν εἰς τὰς τῆς ψυχῆς δυνάμεις (“the
substance of life-breath to the faculties of the soul”).150 By using πνευματικός in this way,
especially as the English translation is given in the Loeb Classical Library, the reader
should understand that the operation, or enablement, of the ψυχή is given by πνεῦμα, or
the substance “of the πνεῦμα.” Philo does not quote from Genesis 2:7 in this text (as he
does in Questions and Answers on Genesis) but certainly similar thoughts emerge in
relation to spirit and soul. That is, if “soul” refers here to the “person” (as opposed to the

147

G.P. Goold, ed., Theophrastus, De Causis Plantarum, Book IV, Translated by Benedict Einarson
and George K.K. Link, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 318319.
148
G.P. Goold, ed., Theophrastus, De Causis Plantarum, Book VI, Translated by Benedict Einarson
and George K.K. Link, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 396297.
149
T.E. Page, ed., Aristotle, Problems II, 158-159.
150
G.P. Goold, ed., Philo, Volume I, Translated by F.H. Colson and G.H. Whitaker, Loeb Classical
Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1929), 53.

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“spirit” of the person) as it seems to do in Gen. 2:7, then Philo is simply using the term
πνευματικός in the same way Greek writers did before him.
The occurrence of πνευματικός in Who is the Heir of Divine Things in section
242, line 6, Philo writes, τῶν πνευματικῶν τόνων (“currents of spirit force”).151 Not
unlike the first occurrence, Philo is primarily using the term πνευματικός to describe
breath, but in a way that gives it the significance of sustaining life (force or agency). This
is the first of three occasions for Philo to use πνευματικός to describe τόνος, meaning,
“stretching tension, force, lasting quality.”152 The first of two occurrences of πνευματικός
in On the Eternity of the World is in section 86, line 3, where Philo writes, ὅ τρόπον
ἕξεως πνευματικῆς, translated “a sort of permeating current” in Goold.153 Philo uses
πνευματικός to describe a habit, or state of being, which refers to the source of fuel in his
illustration of how to understand fire. Philo’s use of πνευματικός appears to be “wind”
which lies in wait before a flame is ignited. In this way, Philo is consistently using
πνευματικός in the context of the πνεῦμα, or having to do with forces or energy such as
wind.
In his work On Abraham Philo describes Abraham’s experience of visitors
announcing to him that his wife Sarah was going to have a child. Philo comments on
Sarah’s understanding of a “different and grander aspect” of these visitors (as prophets or
angels), μεταβαλὀντων ἀπὸ πνευματικῆς καὶ ψυχοειδοῦς οὐσίας εἰς άνθρωπόμορφον
ἰδέαν (“transformed from their spiritual and soul-like nature into human shape”).154 Here
151

G.P. Goold, ed., Philo, Volume IV, 405.
BDAG, 1010. Τόνος is not used in the New Testament and only once in the Septuagint,
describing the muscles of an old man whose muscles had become flabby (4Mac. 7:13). The other two
occasions are in “On rewards and Punishments” (section 48, line 3) and “On the Eternity of the World”
(section 125, line 4).
153
G.P. Goold, ed., Philo, Volume IX, 244-246.
154
G.P. Goold, ed., Philo, Volume VI, 58-59.
152

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Philo’s use of πνευματικός describes the immaterial nature of these beings before
becoming visible to Abraham and Sarah.
The last two occurrences of πνευματικός in Philo are in Book One and Two of
Questions and Answers on Genesis. Whereas the occurrence in Book Two simply
references and describes a “living being” (Book II, section 12d, line 4), the occurrence in
Book One uses the term πνευματικός to describe the difference between the form of an
angel and the form of a woman. Philo writes, Πνευματικὴ δὲ ἠ τῶν ἀγγέλων οὐσία, (“But
the substance of angels is spiritual”).155 Here the occurrence of the English gloss
‘spiritual’ is not helpful because it may give the impression that Philo is referring to the
substance of an angel when he could be referring to the realm in which it resides. An
alternative translation could be, “the substance of angels pertains to the ‘spirit’ realm.”
Depending on translation, Philo could be using the term πνευματικός to describe the form
of an angel or he could be using it to describe the realm the angel pertains to.
The samples examined above, from all known occurrences of πνευματικός that
predate the New Testament, show the adjective being used in relation to the noun πνεῦμα,
having a general definition “of the πνεῦμα.”156 The majority of these occasions are
contexts of breathing or describing the effect of elemental forces such as the wind or
fermentation. Philo uses the term πνευματικός to describe elemental forces but there are a
few occasions where he uses it to describe the form of a being that is not “fleshy.” Philo
does not appear to be referring explicitly to the involvement of deity in his use of
πνευματικός, but more to the nonphysical form of a being in contrast to the physical.

155

G.P. Goold, ed., Philo, Supplement I, 61.
The search for all known occurrences of πνευματικός has included online searches of papyri and
inscriptions.
156

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3.2 Occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament
The following section will review all of the occurrences of πνευματικός in the
New Testament. This will include the fifteen occurrences in 1 Corinthians that will also
be further elaborated in chapter four where the project takes a turn to explicitly examine
the context of the argument in which these fifteen occurrences are found. What this
section will demonstrate is the significant shift in the usage of the term πνευματικός to
specifically refer to that which pertains to the Spirit of God, as opposed to simply, or
more generically, “pertaining to the πνεῦμα.”

Πνευματικός in Galatians
There is only one occurrence of πνευματικός in Galatians, but it is a good place to
start this survey because of the consensus among many scholars that Galatians is Paul’s
earliest letter. There is virtually no debate among scholars regarding the Pauline
authorship of Galatians.157 There is significant debate about when Paul wrote this letter
and for whom it was intended. These arguments are usually referred to as the North and
South Galatian Hypotheses.158 Although neither hypothesis confirms the date Galatians
was written, the North Galatian Hypothesis would allow for a later date of composition
than the South Galatian Hypothesis, which causes some to suggest that Galatians was
written after 1 Corinthians.159

157

Richard N. Longenecker, Galatians [Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 41] (Nashville, TN:
Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1990), lvii.
158
Longenecker lays out a thorough analysis of this debate in the introduction of his commentary on
Galatians. Longenecker, Galatians, lxiii.
159
As indicated in chapter one, the estimated date of 1 Corinthians is AD 54-55, based on Paul’s
first arrival in Corinth in AD 50-51 according to the archaeological evidence from the Gallio Inscription.
Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology, Third Revised and Expanded
Edition (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2002), 161-164.

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While the importance of these two debates are peripheral to the purposes of this
project, the dating of Galatians does have some bearing on the study of the term
πνευματικός. Even if it is determined that Galatians was written at a later time, most
scholars would suggest it was written prior to Paul’s third missionary journey, and
several others suggest it was written even before the Council of Jerusalem.160 Holding to
the these opinions of scholars, the first time the term πνευματικός occurs in Pauline
writings that survive is in the letter to the Galatians. This is an important factor in this
project because it will be suggested that the repeated use of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians
is directly connected to how some people in Corinth were using this term to describe
themselves, and thus the focus is not simply Paul’s use of the term but his re-use of the
term in light of how the Corinthians used it. If the letter to the Galatians, which addresses
similar issues of gospel and apostolic authority, was written prior to the letter of 1
Corinthians, and it is very likely that it was, then Paul used the term πνευματικός prior to
the Corinthian correspondence. This would then demonstrate that Paul’s use of the term
πνευματικός did not originate because of the Corinthian misunderstanding, but was a
term that Paul was already using to describe the influence of the Holy Spirit.
The one occurrence of πνευματικός in Galatians comes at the beginning of
chapter six, “Brothers and sisters, if someone is caught in a sin, you who live by the
Spirit should restore that person gently. But watch yourselves, or you also may be
tempted” (Gal. 6:1). In this text the English phrase “you who live by the Spirit” is
translated from πνευματικός. The 1984 edition of the NIV simply translates, “you who
are spiritual,” displaying the common term “spiritual” as the English equivalent of

160

Longenecker, lxxxviii.

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πνευματικός. Here the term is plural nominative (πνευματικοὶ), which mimics the form
the Corinthians would have used in their self-declaration as “Spirit-people.”
The instruction for οἱ πνευματικοὶ to restore others who are caught in sin should
not be understood as Paul addressing only some of the people in the Galatian churches.
The assumption for Paul is that all Christians in Galatia are making effort to live by the
Spirit, and thus collectively are οἱ πνευματικοὶ, the “ones who live by the Spirit” as
defined in Galatians 5. Donald Guthrie comments, “There is no question here of an
exclusive group of believers more spiritual than others. This quality of spirituality is
meant for all Christians.”161 J. Louis Martyn adds, “‘The spiritual ones’ (hoi pneumatikoi)
is a designation for the whole of the church, a community free of hierarchical distinctions.
The Spirit leads members of the church to help one another, not to stand apart from one
another in the feeling of superiority.”162 Martyn understands πνευματικός as a description
for all Christians, not just the few who see themselves as superior to others.
F.F. Bruce points out that the context of restoring someone with a “spirit of
gentleness” (Gal. 6:1) is the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23). This means that “those who
live by the Spirit” (Gal. 5:25; 6:1) restore others ἐν πνεύματι πραΰτητος (“in the Spirit of
gentleness”) because they manifest the fruit of God’s Spirit in their lives. Paul is not
conceding that only some will emerge within the community to be οἱ πνευματικοὶ but that
all who confess Christ would become the kind of Spirit-people who are ready to help
others in gentleness. Bruce concludes:
If there were in the Galatian churches, as in the church of Corinth, some who
regarded themselves as pneumatikoi in a superior sense (cf. 1 Cor. 2:15; 3:1;
161

Donald Guthrie, Galatians [The New Century Bible Commentary] (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1973), 142.
162
Louise J. Martyn, Galatians [The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries] (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 2004), 546.

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14:37)— ‘whoever feels himself a Pneumatiker’ (H. Lietzmann, An die Galater,
38)—Paul impresses on them that one test of true spirituality is a readiness to set
those who stumble by the wayside on the right road again in a sympathetic and
uncensorious spirit.163
Richard Longenecker also agrees that Paul is not encouraging a hierarchy within
the community but inviting both the libertine and legalistic Galatian believers to consider
themselves οἱ πνευματικοὶ on the basis of being in Christ. Longenecker comments:
There is, therefore, no reason to doubt and abundant reason to believe that Paul
here uses this designation with approval in speaking about all his converts in
Galatia. They are, despite their legal and libertine enticements, ‘the true spirituals’
simply because being ‘in Christ’ they have become the recipients of God’s
Spirit.164
While Paul’s vision for all Christians is to be influenced by the Spirit’s agency,
his practical exhortation in Galatians 6:1 for οἱ πνευματικοὶ to restore those caught in sin
is found in the context of a letter dominated with tension between πνεῦμα and σάρξ (Gal.
5:17).165 Paul uses σάρξ in Galatians to refer both to the pursuit of Torah, which has a
literal “flesh” application (Gal. 2:19-21; 3:2-3; 5:2-6), and the worldly pursuits of the
libertine believers (Gal. 5:13-21) who seek to indulge the pleasures of the flesh.166 Paul’s

163

F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Galatians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC-13;
Accordance electronic ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1982), 260. This posture is consistent with Jesus’
discussion about restoration and humility in Matthew 18.
164
Longenecker concludes, “So by reminding his converts of their status as πνευματικοί Paul calls
on them to live up to that status.” Longenecker, Galatians, 273. James Dunn disagrees, noting it is unlikely
that Paul would expect the whole church to respond to the person caught in transgression. Dunn also adds
that if Paul in fact had a specific group in mind, he may have fallen “into a trap of over-emphasizing
manifest experience or overt displays of the Spirit as a mark of maturity … and it could be that he learned
only by later experience how badly wrong such an emphasis could go (1 Cor. ii.13-iii.1).” James Dunn, The
Epistle to the Galatians (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995), 319. But it is unlikely that Paul
was naïve to this danger, thus Dunn’s further suggestion that Paul was generally referring to the whole
church as οἱ πνευματικοὶ but each responding in their own context relationally, not everyone responding to
every situation.
165
There are no occurrences of other corresponding terms such as ψυχικός, σαρκικός/σάρκινος,
γνῶσις, χάρισμα, or τέλειος in Galatians as there are in 1 Corinthians.
166
These texts are not neatly divided to address two groups of people specifically, and as Fee notes,
“he is reminding the Galatians that both categories of “work” (religious observance and sins of the flesh)

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answer to both groups is to no longer be Torah-centered but Spirit-centered people, living
in obedience not to the law but to the Spirit of God. As people who already have God’s
Spirit, they are instructed to keep in step with the Spirit (Gal. 5:25).
Paul repeatedly refers to the Galatian Christians as possessed by and in possession
of the Spirit of God (cf. 3:2-5, 14; 4:6, 29; 5:5, 16-18, 22-23, 25; 6:8). It is evident that
Paul’s single use of the adjective πνευματικός in Galatians is consistent with his constant
use of the noun πνεῦμα to describe activity pertaining to the Holy Spirit, and thus an
influence of the Spirit of God.

Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians
The first four occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians are found in chapters
two and three.167 These occurrences are all a part of Paul’s argument against the
Corinthian claim to wisdom that has become their boast, but which is dividing them
through quarrels (1:11; 3:3) and exposing their immaturity as Christians (3:1-2). The first
two of these four occurrences are found next to each other in 2:13, creating a complicated
phrase that is translated in the NIV, “This is what we speak, not in words taught us by
human wisdom but in words taught by the Spirit, explaining spiritual realities with Spirittaught words” (italics mine). This end phrase is translated from πνευματικοῖς πνευματικά
συγκρίνοντες (2:13). The verb συγκρίνοντες means “to combine” (to bring things
together so as to form a unit) or “to compare” (to draw a conclusion by comparing) or “to
explain, interpret” (“to clarify on the basis of a compatible relationship”).168 The term

belong to the past for those who are in Christ and now walk by the Spirit.” Gordon Fee, God’s Empowering
Presence, 441.
167
1 Cor. 2:13 (x2), 15; 3:1.
168
BDAG, 953.

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συγκρίνοντες is used only another two times in the New Testament, both in 2 Corinthians
and both clearly meaning “compare” (2 Cor. 10:12). Although some have argued for its
classical sense of “combining,” the context of Paul’s explanation, most notably the
juxtaposition of πνεῦμα in 1 Cor.2:12, favours the third definition in BDAG as “explain”
or “interpret.”169
The difficulty is the occurrence of πνευματικός in the dative plural
(πνευματικοῖς), which can be either neuter or masculine. If interpreted in light of what
follows with a comparison of the ψυχικός person, it may seem right to translate this as
masculine and therefore the “spiritual realities” are being explained to “spiritual people.”
But if it is interpreted with what precedes it, namely “words taught by the Spirit,” then
translating it as neuter is a better option. The dative is then understood as an instrumental
dative, and πνευματικά “spiritual realities” are explained by πνευματικοῖς “spiritual
words” (or “truths”). By stating in the previous verse that the πνεῦμα is ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ, Paul
is already providing the context by which he wants his readers to understand the derived
adjective. Thiselton states that, “this is a decisive indication that Paul wishes the
adjectival form πνευματικός to be understood as meaning of the Spirit (of God).”170 One
might translate more simply “of the Spirit explaining of the Spirit” to highlight Paul’s
emphasis that revelation about God is from God. Understanding πνευματικός in this
context then is, as Fee states in his 1 Corinthians commentary, “The Spirit is thus the key
to everything.”171

169
Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 104-105. Thiselton notes, “Everything depends on
judgments about the contextual flow of the argument, the situation at Corinth which shapes how Paul
would consider his language to be perceived and received, and not least on Paul’s own theology of
revelation and communication and of the Holy Spirit.” Thiselton, 1 Corinthians, 265.
170
Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 265.
171
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 122.

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Paul then addresses the person who is πνευματικός (2:15), who is able to make
judgments about the things of God that the ψυχικός person (“person without the Spirit”)
is not able to. Although some English New Testaments translate ψυχικός as “unspiritual,”
the better choice is “natural” or as the NIV states, “person without the Spirit.” As
Thiselton explains, “…the term becomes negative rather than conveying the more valueneutral nuances of ordinary person or person who lives on an entirely human level.”172
In this text, the ψυχικός person is the opposite to the πνευματικός person only by
distinction of the residing Spirit.
The other two occurrences of πνευματικός are in 1 Cor. 2:15 and 3:1. The NIV
translates πνευματικός in 2:15 as “person with the Spirit” and in 3:1 as “people who live
by the Spirit,” clearly demonstrating the committee’s understanding of πνευματικός as
“belonging to the Spirit.” The difference between “with” in 2:15 and “live by” in 3:1 is
minor but demonstrates the range in which “belonging to the Spirit” can be applied. The
translation of πνευματικός as “person with the Spirit” in 2:15 is in the context of
comparing the πνευματικός person and the ψυχικός person to establish how revelation
works and thus how one attains σοφία. The translation of πνευματικός as “people who
live by the Spirit” in 3:1 is in the context of Paul’s application of attaining σοφία, where
Paul rebukes the Corinthians for being νήπιος, currently unable to understand σοφία. Paul
is not telling the Corinthians they do not have the Spirit, but that he could not address
them “as” (ὡς) πνευματικοῖς. By this it is evident that πνευματικός can be used both to

172
Thiselton is careful to acknowledge that “ordinary” can also be problematic for those reading
with gnostic lenses and therefore understanding Paul in the exact opposite way he intended. Thiselton, The
First Epistle to the Corinthians, 268. Also, one needs to be careful that “entirely human level” is not
understood as completely neutral in a world that is captivated by sin. The emphasis on “neutral” is not
“innocent” so much as it is a reference to the ordinary human self without the Spirit, which of course is also
a human self that is influenced by sin.

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indicate that a person has the Spirit and to describe the person who is living according to
the Spirit (or in this case “not living by the Spirit”).
There are two observations regarding these four uses of πνευματικός that help the
reader understand how Paul is using this term. First, we must understand the significance
of the πνευματικός-ψυχικός pairing language. Although it is not completely accurate to
regard these terms as opposites, Paul is definitely using one in contrast to the other. By
using these two terms together to establish the basis of his argument regarding God’s
revelation, the meaning Paul intended is made clearer. Paul demonstrates to the
Corinthians that the πνευματικός person is not someone who has achieved something, but
received something, namely the Spirit of God. This is in opposition to the ψυχικός person
who has not received the Spirit of God.
The second observation is to understand that Paul is primarily referring to the
work of God’s Spirit in the context of revelation. Because it is the Spirit of God that is
the key to understanding God’s revelation to humanity, we can conclude that Paul’s
vision of a πνευματικός person, or his vision of the Christian identity, is demonstrated by
their reception of divine wisdom, which is made accessible by the presence of the Holy
Spirit.173
Paul makes a shift in the development of 1 Corinthians after chapter four to deal
with a few ethical and moral issues in chapters 5-10.174 While chapters five to ten provide
an important context that will be considered in chapter four of this project, it is only
173

It may also be helpful to make note of the adverb πνευματικῶς which is used only here in 2:14
and in Rev. 11:8. The adverb πνευματικῶς can function in a similar way to πνευματικός as a description of
Spirit activity, or pertaining to the Spirit, but less evidence is available regarding the full use of this term in
Paul’s time. John seems to use it in Revelation to mean “figuratively” as the NIV has translated it. It would
be difficult to explain Rev. 11:8 if πνευματικῶς meant the work or the activity of the Spirit.
174
Most scholars would agree this section of the letter does not end with chapter 10 but actually
ends in 11:1.

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chapters nine (once) and ten (three times) that have occurrences of the term πνευματικός.
Paul writes in 1 Cor. 9:11, “If we have sown spiritual seed among you, is it too much if
we reap a material harvest from you?” Not only is πνευματικός used here in a seemingly
different way than in chapters two and three, but the reoccurrence of the contrasting
σαρκικός is also somewhat puzzling.
Paul’s use of σαρκικός in chapter three is negative, implying that the Corinthians
were living according to the flesh even though they had access to the Spirit. Yet in 1
Corinthians 9:11, in reference to supplying Paul with physical resources required to
continue his work of preaching the gospel, σαρκικός is used in a positive way as the good
result of “sowing” πνευματικός.175 Although this appears to be an entirely different way
of using the term πνευματικός, one might ask in what other way could πνευματικός be
understood here other than the agency or activity of God’s Spirit? If πνευματικός in 9:11
is anything less than the agency of the Spirit, then Paul’s insistence that his preaching
was by the Spirit’s power, not his own (2:4-5), was a false claim.176
In chapter 10 we see the first three uses of the adjective πνευματικός with
accompanying nouns. All three nouns that Paul describes as πνευματικός (food, drink,
and rock) are taken from Israel’s history of wanderings in the desert. Gordon Fee
suggests Paul needed a word that was essentially going to accomplish two things at the
same time: refer to these desert provisions as a reminder of the supernatural way that God
provided for his people, and to help the Corinthians see these as a “type” for the Lord’s
Supper.177 Historically, Paul could not be referring to a non-physical substance or a non-

175

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 689.
Paul will use both πνευματικός and σαρκικός in a comparable way in Romans 15:27, which
will be discussed below.
177
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 493.
176

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visible substance, nor could he be suggesting a mere moral designation or achievement.
The difficulty is explaining that food, drink, and a rock can be animated by the Spirit in
the same way that a person might be. The term πνευματικός, then, is best understood as
God making provision, as Thiselton notes, “…with all the ‘hallmarks’ of what is regarded
as a miraculous provision.”178 Paul is explicitly referring to the miraculous provision of
manna for the Israelites in the desert. The term πνευματικός, then, is not making a
figurative argument but a miraculous argument.179
The next three occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians are found in chapters
twelve and fourteen where Paul is instructing the Corinthians about the activity of the
Spirit when the church comes together. In 1 Cor. 12:1, Paul begins with Περὶ δὲ τῶν
πνευματικῶν (Now concerning the activity of the Spirit).180 The adjective πνευματικῶν is
substantive in this text, so most English New Testaments add the noun “gifts” (“spiritual
gifts”). This is the only genitive plural form of πνευματικός in the New Testament and
can be understood as either masculine (“spiritual people”) or neuter (“spiritual
things”).181 In this case, the neuter gender is preferred because it appears Paul is talking
about “things” versus “people” as most translations suggest with the insertion of the noun
“gifts.”
The difficulty with glossing this substantival adjective with “gifts” in 12:1 is that
Paul outlines three ways which the Spirit is manifested (12:7) through Christians in the

178

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 726. This understanding also aligns with the
BDAG definition of “pertaining to the Spirit,” noted in chapter one.
179
It should also be noted that this miraculous provision was not merely to meet physical needs
but to also reveal divine wisdom to Israel in order to build their faith. In this way the usage of the term
πνευματικός in chapter ten is consistent with what has already been seen in chapters two and three.
180
Translation mine. Most English translations assume Paul means “gifts” here, which distorts the
direction Paul takes in the subsequent sentences.
181
Technically it could also be feminine, but where nouns of mixed gender are the presumed
referent, a neuter form would be expected normally.

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church in 12:4-6: χαρισμάτων (gifts or graces), διακονιῶν (services or ministries), and
ἐνεργημάτων (workings or operations). Although “gifts” is not necessarily a wrong
choice for 12:1, it could be too limiting as it appears that Paul meant to include other
kinds of manifestations of the Spirit besides “gifts” (i.e. “services” and “workings”) to
understand how the Spirit is active in Christians (or “in the church”).182 Furthermore,
although 12:2-3 is not easily understood, at least not fully, it appears Paul is following his
opening statement with an explanation of the kinds of utterances one can expect of those
who are animated by the Spirit of God.183 What seems conclusive is that Paul is using
πνευματικός in 12:1 specifically to refer to the activity of the Spirit.184
In chapter fourteen Paul returns to the subject of the activity of the Spirit after
making his most important point about the work of the Spirit: it is all about love (13:113). Paul writes in 14:1, Διώκετε τὴν ἀγάπην, ζηλοῦτε δὲ τὰ πνευματικά (“Follow the
way of love and eagerly desire gifts of the Spirit”). The neuter gender of the adjective
πνευματικός means Paul is not referring to spiritual “persons” but “things.” Similar to
12:1, most English New Testaments translate this as “spiritual gifts” or “gifts of the
Spirit.” By suggesting or insisting that “gifts” is what Paul meant to accompany
πνευματικά, it logically follows to translate the verb προφητεύητε (to prophesy) as a
noun prophecy in the second part of the sentence to maintain the subject of “gifts” (or the

182

Fee suggests, “Paul’s immediate – and overall – concern has to do with what comes from ‘the
Spirit of God’ (v. 3).” Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 638.
183
"You know that when you were pagans, somehow or other you were influenced and led astray
to mute idols. Therefore I want you to know that no one who is speaking by the Spirit of God says, ‘Jesus
be cursed,’ and no one can say, ‘Jesus is Lord,’ except by the Holy Spirit” (1 Cor. 12:2-3, NIV).
184
Because the adjective πνευματικῶν can be understood as masculine as well as neuter, there is
also a possibility that Paul meant to be more specific about not being ignorant of the way the Spirit is active
in people. This is given further significance because Paul is clearly referring to people in verses two and
three. Although Paul is addressing the church and perhaps some in the church more specifically,
understanding the opening statement as a neuter plural (things) is preferred because the greater emphasis in
this part of the letter is how the activity of the Spirit is manifested in the church.

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possession of gifts). As will be demonstrated below, this decision is potentially reversing
Paul’s entire argument regarding some in Corinth who were eager to possess the most
excellent gifts.
If one does not impose the noun “gifts” on this verse, and simply translates the
subjunctive verb προφητεύητε as a verb, it might read something closer to: “Pursue love
and eagerly desire the Spirit’s activity in you, especially so that you may prophesy.” The
result is that Paul is instructing the Corinthians to have an eager desire for the activity of
God’s Spirit in their lives as opposed to eagerly desiring the possession of gifts. One
result of this activity of the Spirit is prophetic speech in the church’s gatherings,
especially the gift of prophecy.185 Similar to the way Paul began chapter twelve, this
approach has Paul addressing the way the Spirit is at work in the church instead of
addressing the gifts the Corinthians possess. If this is correct, translating Paul’s
instructions as “gifts” is the exact opposite point he is trying to make as the Corinthians
were eagerly competing with each other in all that they possessed.
The last of the three occurrences of πνευματικός in chapters eleven to fourteen is
found in 14:37, “If anyone thinks they are a prophet or otherwise gifted by the Spirit, let
them acknowledge that what I am writing to you is the Lord’s command” (14:37). Here
again the NIV adds “gifted” in order to bring clarity to the substantive adjective
πνευματικός. Although “gifted” is not necessarily wrong it is perhaps slightly limiting as
it appears Paul’s emphasis is not on what someone “has” as much as he is emphasizing
where a prophetic word originates, as Paul writes in 14:36, “Or did the word of
God originate with you? Or are you the only people it has reached?” It is evident in

185

Once again the result of the Spirit’s agency in the lives of believers offers divine wisdom, this
time in the form of prophetic speech.

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Paul’s instruction for the Corinthians to eagerly desire πνευματικά and again to eagerly
desire to prophesy (14:39) that in all three passages Paul uses πνευματικός consistently to
refer to the activity of the Spirit.
The last four occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians are found in chapter 15
in verses 44 and 46. In chapter fifteen, Paul is making his ultimate argument regarding
the resurrection of the dead by first arguing that Jesus was raised from the dead (15:1-34),
and then he moves the argument toward the resurrection body (15:35-49). In order to
make his case regarding the resurrection body, Paul returns to the πνευματικός-ψυχικός
language from 1 Corinthians 2, the only two known places in all of Greek literature that
these words are found together.
All four occurrences of the adjective πνευματικός in 1 Cor. 15:44-46 modify the
noun σῶμα, although the noun actually only appears in verse 44. Theologically, the
difficulty for the Corinthians was not a σῶμα ψυχικόν (natural body) but a σῶμα
πνευματικόν (spiritual body). The σῶμα ψυχικόν would have been the only “body” the
Corinthians could grasp. They would have thought about their πνευματικός status as
above or apart from their physical body, and they would not have included bodily
existence in their eschatology.
The key to understanding what kind of body Paul had in mind must be the
πνευματικός-ψυχικός language that Paul first used in 1 Corinthians 2 regarding the
πνευματικός person versus the ψυχικός person. Paul’s somatic theology would mean that
a πνευματικός body does not need to be non-physical or non-visible, but completely
reliant on the agency of the Spirit of God, or a body that is suited for the immaterial
realm of the Spirit.

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Although the fifteen occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians vary in context,
two things remain consistent in how Paul uses this term. First, Paul always uses this term
to speak directly or indirectly about the influence, and thus the agency, of the Spirit of
God. Paul’s eschatological approach to pneumatology means that the believer already
begins to live in the realm of the Spirit upon receiving the Spirit, and is all the more
“pertaining to the Spirit” in resurrection. Living in the realm of the Spirit means
accessing resources, wisdom and provision of the Spirit in many different ways,
including the provision of a resurrection body that is suited for the eternal realm of the
Spirit. Second, and what will become the focus in the following chapters of this project,
is that Paul uses the term πνευματικός repeatedly in 1 Corinthians. In doing so, Paul did
not propose a change of the meaning of πνευματικός, but his application of this term in 1
Corinthians targeted a particular misunderstanding in the church in Corinth, thus the
repeated occurrences in his letter to them.

Πνευματικός in Romans
There are three occurrences of πνευματικός in Romans, Paul’s letter to the church
in Rome written from Corinth on his third and last visit to the Corinthian church.186 The
first occurrence of the term in Romans 1:11 reads: ἵνα τι μεταδῶ χάρισμα ὑμῖν

186

In Romans 16:1-2 Paul commends Phoebe to the church in Rome. Phoebe was a deacon and
most likely a house church leader in Cenchreae. It seems probable that Phoebe will carry the letter and be
Paul’s envoy to the church in Rome. Paul also indicates in Romans 16:23 that he is currently enjoying the
hospitality of Gaius, one of the men that Paul baptized (1 Cor. 1:14), and possibly also known as Gaius
Titius Justus, in whose home the church began after the Jews rejected Paul’s teaching in the synagogue
(Acts 18:7). As Paul uses the term πνευματικός while dictating this letter to Rome (Rom. 16:22), he does so
having overcome the problems with those in Corinth who had misunderstood or had a twisted view of
being spiritual people, cf. E.J. Goodspeed, “Gaius Titus Justus,” JBL 69 (1950), pp. 382-383; F.F. Bruce,
Acts, 350.

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πνευματικὸν (so that I might share some grace resource of the Spirit with you).187 The
word order here helps the reader see the connection Paul makes between grace and Spirit,
as he will do again in Romans 8. The NIV renders this “that I may impart to you some
spiritual gift,” which obscures χάρισμα as simply a gift that requires πνευματικὸν to make
it “spiritual.” Although there are two other occasions in the New Testament where
πνευματικός is translated as “spiritual gifts” or “gifts of the Spirit” (1 Cor. 12:1 and
14:1), as indicated above, both occurrences of πνευματικός in those contexts are
substantive and are not associated with a noun.188 In Romans 1:11, however, Paul
includes the noun χάρισμα (grace bestowed) alongside πνευματικός, the only place in the
New Testament where this happens.189
James Dunn insists that πνευμαιτκά is synonymous with χαρίσματα in 1
Corinthians 12:1 and 14:1 and says the redundancy in Rom. 1:11 is added for emphasis:
“a truly spiritual gift.”190 But there is no precedent for this nor is there any reason for Paul
to add emphasis to χαρίσματα. What he does try to do is clarify how these χαρίσματα are
manifested or expressed in the faith community.191 In fact, it appears that Paul goes out of

187

Translation mine.
In both cases it is generally understood that Paul is addressing gifts of the Spirit and so most
English translations add the noun “gifts” so that it makes sense to the modern reader. Unfortunately, this is
a simplification or reduction of what Paul is really addressing, which is understanding the way the Spirit is
active in the community of believers.
189
The term χάρισμα derives from χάρις, meaning “grace.” Funk, Van Voorst and Robertson all
indicate that the significance of the suffix -μα is “the result of an activity” and therefore the more abstract
noun χάρις translated as “grace” takes a more concrete form in χάρισμα, translated “gift” or “gift of grace.”
Funk, Blass and Debrunner. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament (Cambridge, MA: University Press,
1961), 59; Van Voorst, 7; Robertson, 350.
190
Dunn writes, “The use of πνευματικόν, “spiritual” (that is, belonging to the Spirit, embodying
or manifesting Spirit) is striking, since in 1 Cor 12:1 and 14:1 πνευματικά = χαρίσματα.” Although Dunn
gets the definition of πνευματικόν correct, 1 Cor. 12:1 and 14:1 are not both πνευματικά (12:1 is τῶν
πνευματικῶν), nor is it obvious that πνευματικά = χαρίσματα. James Dunn, Romans 1-8. [Word Biblical
Commentary, Vol. 38A] (Milton Keynes, UK: Word Publishing, 1988), 30.
191
Dunn may not have considered the word order here, ignoring the priority of χάρισμα as already
something provided by God.
188

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his way to avoid using πνευματικός when he wants to narrowly talk about “gifts” because
of how the Corinthians were confusing the matter. Ernst Käsemann suggests that “[in] his
stance against enthusiasm Paul scrupulously avoids the latter term whenever he can and
replaces it with the former.”192 Käsemann is not suggesting these terms are synonyms but
simply indicate Paul’s preference of vocabulary to avoid misunderstanding. Käsemann
correctly suggests, “all charismata are πνευματικά.”193 Although these two words have
some relation to each other, πνευματικά is an adjective that describes the agency of the
Spirit in relation to a person or thing, whereas χαρίσματα is a noun that is something
received by grace. What is explicit in the term πνευματικός is only implicit in χαρίσματα:
it is by the Spirit of God that people receive God’s resources.
The specific wording of Paul sharing a gift in Romans 1:11 is odd for modern
ears. Distribution of gifts or “manifestations of the Spirit” is an activity of the Spirit, not
of people (1 Cor. 12:7). Thomas Schreiner discounts Cranfield’s understanding of this
gift in Rom. 1:11 as a “general blessing” as well as Moo’s understanding of it as an
“insight or ability” and states, “Rather, Fee observes rightly that the gift mentioned here
relates directly to the purpose of the Roman letter.”194 Fee was not the first nor the only
New Testament scholar to suggest this meaning, but in his book God’s Empowering
Presence he states, “In its present context, and especially in light of the letter as a whole,
the ‘Spirit gift’ that he most likely wishes to share with them is his understanding of the
gospel that in Christ Jesus God has created from among Jews and Gentiles one people for
himself, apart from Torah.”195 Fee says that in this way the letter itself has become a

192

Ernst Käsemann, Commentary on Romans. (Grand Rapids, MI.: Eerdmans, 1980), 19.
Ibid.
194
Thomas R. Schreiner, Romans, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1998), 54.
195
Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 488.
193

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Spirit-gifting to the Romans, in place of, or perhaps preceding, a personal visit wherein
which they will be able to partake of this gospel together (Rom. 1:12).
What is most important to identify for the purposes of this project is that Paul had
the Spirit of God in mind when he wrote about a “gift” that he wanted to share with the
church in Rome. Paul’s use of the adjective πνευματικός was to demonstrate the initiative
or working or power that the Spirit produces. God’s grace (χάρις) and his grace bestowed
(χάρισμα) to the church are animated and manifested by his Spirit. If part of what Paul
had in mind was to impart the gift by instruction, that is to share the “deep things of God”
(1 Cor. 2:10), then Paul’s usage in Romans 1:11 fits well with how Paul has used
πνευματικός in previous letters.
The second occurrence of πνευματικός in Romans is found in the well-known “I”
passage in Romans 7. Paul writes, “We know that the law is spiritual; but I am
unspiritual, sold as a slave to sin” (Rom. 7:14). In this text Paul refers to the law (ὁ
νόμος) as πνευματικός. In his commentary on Romans, John E. Toews states simply why
Paul chose to use πνευματικός to describe the law: “it comes from and embodies the
Spirit of God,” which is a consistent view of understanding the adjective πνευματικός.196
Here the law represents the wisdom revealed from God to his people, and this revealing
was primarily through the agency of the Spirit.
Richard Longenecker writes that it is “highly appropriate” for Paul to call the law
“spiritual” (πνευματικός) because the divine origin is God’s Spirit, its authority expresses
God’s will for humanity, and is only understood and practiced rightly by the enablement

196

201.

John E. Toews, Romans [Believers Church Bible Commentary] (Scottdale, PA.: Herald Press),

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of the Spirit.197 But more than that, the law is πνευματικός because it is from within the
workings of God that the law emerged, and in this way it is of the realm of the Spirit.
Fitzmyer notes, “As pneumatikos, the law belongs to the sphere of God, to the sphere of
the Spirit of God; it is an expression of God’s will,” and as such, “it is opposed to what is
sarkinos, ‘carnal, belonging to the sphere of the flesh.’”198
Paul’s description of the law as spiritual must be understood within his dualistic
framework: the law is spiritual, but he is unspiritual (Rom. 7:14). The word translated
“unspiritual” is σάρκινος, often used as a synonym of σαρκικός in the New Testament.
Paul’s dualism here is not nonphysical versus physical, but having to do with origins,
“from God” rather than “from the world.”199
The third occurrence of πνευματικός in Romans is found near the end of the letter
in Romans 15:27, “They were pleased to do it, and indeed they owe it to them. For if the
Gentiles have shared in the Jews’ spiritual blessings, they owe it to the Jews to share with
them their material blessings.” In his closing words, Paul tells the church in Rome that he
plans to visit them on his way to Spain, right after delivering the collection to Jerusalem
that was taken up in Macedonia and Achaia (15:26).200 Paul’s case to the Gentiles in
these regions was that the Gentiles have received what is “of the Spirit” through the Jews,
and an appropriate response is to at least share with the Jews material wealth as an act of
reciprocity. This text is a parallel to 1 Cor. 9:11 where Paul reasons with the Corinthians

197

Richard Longenecker, The Epistle to the Romans [NICNT] (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,

2016), 661.

198

Fitzmyer, 1 Corinthians, 473.
Paul’s dualism here is difficult because “the world” is also “from God.”
200
Perhaps this is also Paul’s way of preparing the church in Rome for the support he will need to
complete his next journey.
199

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regarding his right to share in their σαρκικός harvest because of the πνευματικός seeds he
had planted.
Paul uses the term σαρκικός in these contexts not with reference to a “worldly”
way, but to an earthly way. The semantic spectrum of σαρκικός is broad, as was
established in chapter two. It means “pertaining to creation,” or “that which is created,”
or “of the world.” In some cases that seems to be neutral and in other cases it seems to be
characterized by evil desires or lust.
The word “blessings” in the NIV is added to both Greek adjectives that are
otherwise substantive in the Greek text (without a noun to modify) in Romans 15:27.201
The word “blessings” is certainly not a bad choice, nonetheless it does generalize what
the Gentiles received from the Jews, which is not simply a blessing but the new
revelation of God through the Messiah in its entirety, which came to them spiritually: by
the work of the Spirit of God.202 One might wonder if this comment also relates to Paul’s
usage of πνευματικός in Rom. 1:11, suggesting they support him financially and in other
ways in exchange for the gift he brings to them from God.

Πνευματικός in Ephesians and Colossians
There are three occurrences of πνευματικός in Ephesians and two in Colossians.
The first occurrence is in Ephesians 1:3, describing εὐλογίᾳ (blessing) in Christ. Unlike
the occurrence of πνευματικός in Romans 15:27 where English translations supply the

201

The KJV simply adds “things” as to not add interpretation to the text.
Käsemann describes this as “heavenly gifts effected by the Spirit” and rendering their thanks
with “earthly support.” Käsemann, 399.
202

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noun “blessings,” Paul is more explicit here by providing the noun εὐλογίᾳ.203 The term
εὐλογία is used for both human and divine blessings in the New Testament, but in Eph.
1:3 it is clear Paul is referring to something that comes from God. As the context of the
passage demonstrates, Paul is describing a blessing “of the Spirit” that ultimately has an
eschatological allusion, as vv. 1:9b-10 make clear: “to be put into effect when the times
reach their fulfillment—to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ”
(Eph. 1:9b-10).
The “blessing” is described as πνευματικός because it is a blessing that is from or
that is implemented by the Spirit. This is not to be confused with a person’s inner life that
is hidden (i.e. one’s spirit), but as something “in the heavenly realms” and “in Christ.”
Although the blessing may affect the inner self (spirit), the source of the blessing is from
another realm and is a part of God’s saving activity.204 As Andrew Lincoln states, “The
blessing consists of God’s saving activity in Christ and this fullness of divine blessing
can be described as “spiritual” … because it is bound up with the Holy Spirit.”205 The use
of πνευματικός in 1:3 is then consistent with the remaining two occurrences of
πνευματικός in Ephesians, namely 5:19; 6:12, as nicely summarized by Lincoln: “This
sense of ‘spiritual,’ as resulting from the presence and work of the Spirit, is to be found in
5:19 (cf. also Col. 1:9; 3:16), and the last two verses of the eulogy, vv. 13, 14, indicate

203

In one sentence, Paul refers to “blessing” three times in three different forms: adjective
(εὐλογητός), verb (εὐλογέω), and noun (εὐλογία).
204
Markus Barth. Ephesians [Anchor Bible, Vol. 34] (Garden City, NY: Doubeday and Company,
1974), 101.
205
Andrew T. Lincoln, Ephesians [Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 42] (Dallas, TX: Word
Publishing, 1990), 19-20. Markus Barth explains the meaning of πνευματικός in the Anchor Bible
Commentary of Ephesians and concludes, “Above all, those things or events are called “spiritual” that are a
result and evidence of the presence of the Spirit.” Markus Barth, Ephesians, 101.

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that present appropriation of the blessing of the inheritance occurs through participation
in the Spirit.”206
The second occurrence of πνευματικός in Ephesians describes the plural noun
ᾠδαῖς (songs) in Eph. 5:19, which is a close parallel to Col. 3:16, also the second
occurrence of πνευματικός in Colossians. Paul’s instruction to speak to one another with
psalms, hymns, and songs of the Spirit in Ephesians comes immediately after an
exhortation to not be drunk with wine but to be filled with the Spirit (Eph. 5:18).
Although the feminine plural ending πνευματικαῖς is specifically modifying only ᾠδαῖς
(songs), the imperative πληροῦσθε ἐν πνεύματι that precedes “psalms and hymns, and
songs from the Spirit” indicates a view that it is the filling of the Spirit that results in
these kinds of faith expressions.207
Lincoln points out that these three terms are the most common ways for speaking
about religious songs in the Septuagint, used interchangeably with one another. Listing
all three in Eph. 5:19 (and Col. 3:16) has more to do with repeated emphasis than three
distinct styles of song.208 And as all three terms are placed in the context of being filled
with the Spirit, it appears plain that all three are “belonging to the Spirit” in some way.
Furthermore, in both occurrences of πνευματικός (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16) the author
refers to the heart. In Eph. 5:19 it is a reference to making music from the heart to the
Lord, and in Col. 3:16 it is singing to God with gratitude in the heart. Similar to the

206

Lincoln, Ephesians, 19-20.
Ben Witherington notes, “The Spirit is both the means and the substance of the filling, and v.
19 tells what sort of response the Spirit prompts in the believer.” Ben Witherington III, The Letters to
Philemon, the Colossians, and the Ephesians, 312.
208
Lincoln explains, “Their synonymity makes it all the more likely that the adjective
πνευματικαῖς, “spiritual,” although agreeing in gender with only the last in the series, embraces all three
terms.” Andrew T. Lincoln, Ephesians, 19-20.
207

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blessing text of Eph. 1:3, the inner self (e.g., “heart”) is where the Spirit of God dwells,
and where Christ is present. Lincoln states:
Believers who are filled with the Spirit delight to sing the praise of Christ, and
such praise comes not just from the lips but from the individual’s innermost
being, from the heart, where the Spirit himself resides (cf. 3:16, 17, where the
Spirit in the inner person is equivalent to Christ in the heart).209
The third occurrence of πνευματικός in Ephesians describes πονηρίας (evil), and it
is translated in many English New Testaments as “forces of evil” (Eph. 6:12). Here again
the author’s fondness for repetition is seen in the five-times repeated accusative πρὸς,
“For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the
authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in
the heavenly realms” (Eph. 6:12, italics mine). The contrastive ἀλλὰ separating “flesh
and blood” from the remaining four is a clear indicator that the author is making a
distinction between physical and nonphysical, which is a slight departure in the use of
πνευματικός. While remaining consistent with the general meaning of “pertaining to the
πνεῦμα,” here it is obvious that it is not referring to God’s Spirit, but to “spirits of evil” or
perhaps the “spirits in the realm of evil.”210
The remaining occurrence of πνευματικός in Ephesians and Colossians is in Col.
1:9, “We continually ask God to fill you with the knowledge of his will through all the
wisdom and understanding that the Spirit gives” (Col. 1:9b). The author here articulates a
filling of the knowledge of God’s will that comes from God and accomplishing this
“filling” through a πνευματικός wisdom and understanding (the dative πνευματικῇ

209

Lincoln, Ephesians, 19-20.
Lincoln, Ephesians, 444. If Paul meant “spirits of evil” in Eph. 6:12, why not just write τὰ
πνεύματα τῆς πονηρίας? Paul may simply be referring to the unseen forces he has already mentioned in the
earlier part of Eph.6:12, and then using πνευματικός to characterize these evil forces as a part of the realm
of evil.
210

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relating to both dative nouns). It is quite clear in this text that the role of πνευματικός is
to describe a wisdom and understanding from God that accomplishes the filling of the
knowledge of God’s will, similar to what Paul wrote in chapters two and three of 1
Corinthians.
What is demonstrated in the occurrences of πνευματικός in Ephesians and
Colossians is that “pertaining to the Spirit” has broad application. Something can pertain
to the Spirit because it is from God, it can pertain to the Spirit because it is about God, it
can pertain to the Spirit because it belongs to God, and it also can pertain to that which is
against God (evil forces, or spiritual beings opposing God).

Πνευματικός in 1 Peter
There are only two occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament not found
in Paul’s letters, and both are found in 1 Peter 2:5. The author writes, “You also, like
living stones, are being built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering
spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 2:5).
The adjective πνευματικός is used twice within the same sentence to describe both
a house/household (singular) and sacrifices (plural) that are acceptable to God.211 The
nouns “house” (or “household”) and “sacrifices” both function metaphorically as the

211

The term οἶκος can mean “house” as in a physical structure, but it can also mean “household”
as in a family unit or those who occupy the house. Elliott says in the case of polyvalent terms one must
look at the context. The difficulty is that the context bears both the imagery of a physical temple and also a
people, a royal lineage. Elliott writes, “Whereas King David had planned to build God a house (oikos, i.e., a
temple), God countered his intention by promising to build him a house (oikos, i.e., royal lineage) that
would last forever.” John H. Elliott, 1 Peter, The Anchor Bible, (New York, NY: Doubleday), 414. While
Elliott favours “household” in 2:5, J. Ramsey Michaels indicates that the preference of “house” (or
“household”) over “temple” is less significant than Elliott contends, arguing that, “the ‘spiritual house’ of
which Peter speaks is immediately said to be ‘for the holy priesthood,’ and it is difficult to imagine a house
intended for priesthood as being anything other than a temple of some sort.” J. Ramsey Michaels, 1 Peter
[Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 49] (Waco, TX: Word Publisher, 1988), 100.

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author creates a picture of how the people of God come together in a new way in Jesus,
bearing the imagery of the temple in Jerusalem in both structure and practice. In the same
way they are a household, a royal priesthood, offering sacrifices that are acceptable to
God through Jesus Christ. By using this cultic imagery as metaphor, the author of 1 Peter
is able to describe the Christian life in eschatological terms that is sourced in and enabled
by the Spirit.212
The author of 1 Peter uses the term πνευματικός specifically to make a point
about the nature of the church, and he does so using rich imagery from Israel’s past. The
point the author makes here takes on greater significance in the broader context of the
entire letter, which contains revelatory insight by the Holy Spirit in 1:11-12, the
transforming work by the Spirit in 3:18 and 4:6, and sanctifying comments in 1:2 and
4:14.213 The use of πνευματικός in 1 Peter, then, is to indicate or signify identity as
belonging to God through the Spirit. The author describes the house(hold) and sacrifices
as “of the Spirit” (πνευματικός) in the context of a letter that indicates both belonging and
agency of the Spirit.

3.3 Occurrences of πνευματικός in the Apostolic Fathers
The term πνευματικός occurs nineteen times in the writings of the Apostolic
Fathers.214 All three occurrences of πνευματικός in 2 Clement describe the ἐκκλησία
(church), but it is not entirely clear in his explanation what the author wants his reader to

212
John H. Elliott, 1 Peter, The Anchor Bible (New York, NY: Doubleday), 422. Elliot notes in
his commentary on 1 Peter that Paul also used cultic metaphor regarding his own ministry: “He further
employed the cultic metaphor in speaking of his ministry as a “priestly serving” (hierourgounta) of the
gospel of God and of the Gentiles as his ‘offering’ (prophora) to God (15:16; cf. Phil 2:17; 2 Tim 4:6).”
213
The author of 1 Peter uses the term πνεῦμα eight times in the letter in chapters 1, 3, and 4.
214
2 Clement (x3); Letter of Barnabas (x3); Ignatius (x12); and the Didache (x1).

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understand about the church. The first occurrence of πνευματικός is found in 2 Clement
14:1, Ώστε, ἀδελφοί, ποιοῦντες τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πατρὸς ἡμῶν θεοῦ ἐσόμεθα ἐκ τῆς
ἐκκλησιας τῆς πρώτης, τῆς πνευματικῆς, τῆς πρὸ ἡλίου καὶ σελήνης ἐκτισμένης (“So
then, my brothers, if we do the will of God our Father we will belong to the first church,
the spiritual church, the church that was created before the sun and moon”).215 The author
states that before the creation of the sun and moon, the “first church” was “created.”
There is no indication here if “church” is to refer to an assembly or if it is otherwise
symbolic of something. If it refers to an assembly, one might wonder if the author
described God as having the church in mind prior to material creation.
The second occurrence of πνευματικός clarifies the first in 2 Clement 14:2, καὶ ἔτι
τὰ βιβλία καὶ οἱ ἀπόστολοι τὴν ἐκκλησίαν οὐ νῦν εἶναι, ἀλλὰ ἄνωθεν. ἦν γὰρ
πνευματική, ὡς καὶ ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἡμῶν (“the Bible [Or: the books] and the apostles indicate
that the church has not come into being just now, but has existed from the beginning. For
it existed spiritually, as did our Jesus”).216 The author’s claim is that the Books of the
Apostles declare a “church” that existed from the beginning because the church is
πνευματική, meaning the assembly “of the Spirit.” For Clement, πνευματικός describes
the essence of that which is of the Spirit, before the creation of the material world, and
therefore “from the beginning” in the same way that Jesus also existed before creation.
The third occurrence of πνευματικός in 2 Clement 14:3 is the most difficult to
understand, yet it contains another helpful clue to Clement’s use of πνευματικός: ἡ
ἐκκλησία δὲ πνευματικὴ οὖσα ἐφανερώθη ἐν τῇ σαρκὶ Χριστοῦ (“And even though the

215

Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume I, Translated by Bart D. Ehrman (Loeb
Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 187.
216
Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume I, 187.

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church was spiritual, it became manifest in Christ’s flesh”).217 Clement clearly describes
the church as πνευματικός as a way to explain its origin before its manifestation in the
flesh. He adds, “flesh is the counterpart and copy of the spirit.”218 For Clement, the term
πνευματικός is a way of describing something opposite, or a counterpart, to flesh, or
perhaps the essence of something that is later manifested in the flesh. His view of
creation is an example of this, as all things material originate in the realm of the Spirit.
The term πνευματικός occurs three times in the Letter of Barnabas. The first
occurrence is in Barnabas 1:2 where it modifies the noun δωρεᾶς, meaning “gift”: οὕτως
ἔμφυτον τῆς δωρεᾶς πνευματικῆς χάριν εἰλήφατε (“For you have received such a
measure of his grace planted within you, the spiritual gift!”).219 Of all the occurrences in
Greek literature in which the term πνευματικός is translated in English as “spiritual gift,”
this is one of only two where the noun is provided in the Greek text.220 The author
clarifies his intent in 1:3 with, “for truly I see that, in your midst, the Spirit has been
poured out upon you from the abundance of the lord’s fountain.”221 The “gift” then is the
Spirit, describing the nature of the grace they received from God. Thus, the term
πνευματικός is used directly to refer to the Spirit, God’s gift to them in his grace.
The second occurrence is in Barnabas 4:11, stating, Γενώμεθα πνευματικοί,
γενώμεθα ναὸς τέλειος τῷ θεῷ (“We should be spiritual; we should be a perfect temple to

217

Ibid.
One might consider if the translation of πνεύματι should be capitalized, referring then to the
Spirit of God specifically as something counterpart to the σαρκὶ (flesh).
219
Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume II, Translated by Bart D. Ehrman (Loeb
Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 13. Robert Kraft translates the last
phrase, “such an implantation of the pneumatic gift!”, a gloss that attempts to capture the essence of
πνευματικός without some of difficulties of the English word “spiritual”. Jack Sparks, ed., The Apostolic
Fathers, Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1978), 268.
220
Here in Barnabas 1:2 the term πνευματικός modifies δωρεᾶς. The other occurrence is in
Romans 1:11 where πνευματικός modifies χάρισμα.
221
Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume II, 13.
218

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God”).222 The author begins by quoting Isaiah 5:21, “Woe to those who have
understanding in themselves and are knowledgeable before their own eyes,”223 and then
declaring the opposite of human σοφία, the author exhorts his readers to be πνευματικός,
which he explains by repeating the subjunctive “we should be” with the metaphor of the
temple, which is another way of talking about the place of the Spirit of God. Here the
author is signalling the meaning of πνευματικός as something “of the Spirit” or “where
the Spirit is located.”
The third occurrence of πνευματικός in Barnabas is found in 16:10, Τουτέστιν
πνευματικὸς ναὸς οἰκοδομούμενος τῷ κυρίῳ (“This is the spiritual temple built for the
Lord”).224 The author precedes this by instructing that those who desire to be saved will
look not to another man, but to Him that dwells inside and speaks from within. For the
author of Barnabas, the term πνευματικός is used to describe a reality that one must
recognize as the agency of the Spirit, just as God’s presence is realized in the temple.225
In the seven letters attributed to Ignatius, the Bishop of Antioch, there are twelve
occurrences of πνευματικός in four different letters. The first six occurrences are in the
letter to the Ephesians. The first occurrence in 5:1 compares πνευματικός with the
adjective ἀνθρώπινος, which Jeremias defines as “a part of the created world … where it
signifies human as distinct from animal nature.”226 Jeremias elaborates on the context of
1 Cor. 2:13 and says ἀνθρώπινος is the antithesis of πνεῦμα (or God’s wisdom), which
indicates that the term ἀνθρώπινος can function as a synonym of σαρκικός.227
222

Ibid., 25.
Ibid.
224
Ibid., 75. This appears to be echoes of temple language from 1 Cor. 3 or 1 Peter 2.
225
This is perhaps an echo of what Peter was after in his letter (1 Peter 2:5).
226
J. Jeremias, TDNT, Vol. 1, 366. BDAG defines ἀνθρώπινος as pertaining to being of person,
human; also in contrast to animal and in contrast to the divine, 80.
227
J. Jeremias, TDNT, Vol. 1, 366-367.
223

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The next four occurrences in 7:2 and 8:2 (repeated thrice) use πνευματικός paired
with σαρκικός as a comparison of flesh and Spirit. Not unlike Paul’s usage of these
terms, Ignatius refers to the part of the human self that pertains to the Spirit. Of specific
interest are the three occurrences in 8:2 as Ignatius seems to indicate not only a fierce
incompatibility of flesh and Spirit, but referring to “spiritual” as the agency of Jesus
Christ:
Those who belong to the flesh cannot do spiritual things, nor can those who
belong to the spirit do fleshly things; so too, faith cannot do what is faithless nor
can faithlessness do what is faithful. But even what you do according to the flesh
is spiritual, for you do all things in Jesus Christ.228
The language in 8:2 resembles 1 Corinthians 2:12-15 where Paul states that
human understanding of God is only possible by the agency of the Spirit. It should be
noted that the terms πνευματικός and σαρκικός here are not to characterize the physical
world as bad, but inadequate without the Spirit of God.
The sixth occurrence of πνευματικός in the letter to the Ephesians is in 11:2,
Χωρὶς τούτου μηδὲν ὑμῖν πρεπέτω, ἐν ᾧ τὰ δεσμὰ περιφέρω, τοὺς πνευματικοὺς
μαργαρίτας (“Apart from him nothing should seem right to you. In him I am bearing my
chains, which are spiritual pearls”).229 Ignatius describes his commitment to Jesus Christ
as chains, perhaps normally something imposed and unwanted, but he describes them as
πνευματικός pearls, or one might render this as “jewels of the Spirit.” The term
πνευματικός is being used here to describe something that has come from God or that
originates with God.

228

Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume I, 227-229. Ehrman’s translation contains
a lower case “s” for “spirit” indicating a neutrality regarding whether the author was intending a human
reference or deity (bold and underline mine for three English translations of πνευματικός).
229
Ibid., 231.

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The letter Ignatius sent to the Magnesians contains two occurrences of
πνευματικός in 13:1 and 13:2. Here Ignatius is emphasizing the importance of obedience
to church leadership and providing a context of how that obedience fits into the entire
cosmos under the Trinity. In 13:1 Ignatius describes a wreath circlet (or crown) of the
local church leaders as πνευματικός, ἀξιοπλόκου πνευματικοῦ στεφάνου (“which is a
spiritual crown worthily woven”).230 The term πνευματικός here is a designation of
something that is established by God’s Spirit, or has the Spirit’s blessing upon it.
In 13:2, there is a common comparison of πνευματικός and σαρκικός, ἵνα ἕνωσις
ᾖ σαρκική τε καὶ πνευματική (“so that there may be unity in both flesh and spirit”).231
The comparison is not good versus bad, nor merely physical versus non-physical
(although it is not completely separate from this idea), but it is to describe the union, or
unity, of creation and the Creator. His use of the term πνευματικός here refers directly to
the Spirit of God, or the realm belonging to the Spirit.
There are two occurrences of πνευματικός in Ignatius’ letter to the Smyrnians
(12:2; 13:1), both paired with σαρκικός. The first, in 12:2, refers to Jesus in his
resurrection as both corporeal (σαρκικός) and spiritual (πνευματικός), πάθει τε καὶ
ἀναστάσει σαρκικῇ τε καὶ πνευματικῇ ἑνότητι θεοῦ καὶ ὑμῶν (“in his passion and
resurrection, which pertains to both flesh and spirit, in unity with God and with you”).232
Although it would be consistent to interpret this simply as the author indicating that Jesus
was both of flesh (material) and of spirit (non-material), it is difficult to escape what “of
the spirit” might mean for Jesus other than “of the Spirit.”233 The second occurrence is in

230

Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume I, 253.
Ibid., 255.
232
Ibid., 309.
233
Similar to 1 Peter 3:17-18, “…He was put to death in the body but made alive in the Spirit.”
231

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13:1, Ἀσπάζομαι τὸν οἶκον Ταουίας, ἥν εὔχομαι ἑδρᾶσθαι πίστει καὶ ἀγάπῃ σαρκικῇ τε
καὶ πνευματικῇ (“I greet the household of Tavia, whom I pray will be firm in faith and in
a love that pertains to both flesh and spirit”).234 Coming at the end of the letter, his
salutation extends to the house of Tavia, expressing through prayer that it will be
received in faith and love, both “of the flesh” and “of the spirit.” The term πνευματικός
could easily be understood here as noncorporeal, yet it may not be too far to suggest “in
the Spirit” given the context of Christian faith and love.
The last two occurrences of πνευματικός in the letters from Ignatius are in his
letter to Polycarp (1:2; 2:2). In the first occurrence Ignatius writes, Ἐκδίκει σου τὸν
τόπον ἐν πάσῃ ἐπιμελείᾳ σαρκικῇ τε καὶ πνευματικῇ (“Vindicate your position [Or:
office] with all fleshly and spiritual diligence”).235 The word translated “vindicate” here
might be better translated “maintain” as the point that Ignatius is making is to live out the
true appointment to care for the church with discipline of both body and spirit. In the
second occurrence Ignatius writes, Διὰ τοῦτο σαρκικὸς εἶ καὶ πνευματικός, ἵνα τὰ
φαινόμενά σου εἰς πρόσωπον κολακεύῃς (“You are fleshly and spiritual for this reason,
that you may deal gently with what is visible before you”).236 Interestingly, here Ignatius
echoes Galatians 6:1 as Paul instructed those who are πνευματικοὶ to gently restore others
who are caught in sin. Ignatius is not explicitly clear that he is using the term
πνευματικός to refer to the activity of the Spirit, but it would seem odd that that the
reason for being non-physical also is to deal with people in a gentle way. That is, it seems
to make more sense that Ignatius was referring to the activity of the Spirit in helping them

234

Bart D. Ehrman, ed., The Apostolic Fathers, Volume I, 309.
Ibid., 311.
236
Ibid., 313.
235

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deal gently with what is visible before them.
The Didache contains only one occurrence of πνευματικός in 10:3, ἡμῖν δὲ
ἐχαρίσω πνευματικὴν τροφὴν καὶ ποτὸν εἰς ζωὴν αἰωνιον διὰ Ἰησοῦ τοῦ παιδός σου
(“And you graciously provided us with spiritual food and drink, and eternal life through
Jesus, your child/servant”). The term πνευματικός is used here in a prayer of
thanksgiving for the Lord’s Supper, explaining that food and drink were given for
enjoyment, yet through God’s child/servant (Jesus Christ) πνευματικός food and drink
was given graciously, and thus having significance beyond their material qualities
(“spiritual” significance). This is a very close parallel to 1 Corinthians 10:3-4, describing
the food and drink as that which came from God through the Spirit.

3.4 Conclusion
The goal of this chapter has been to use the working definition of the term
πνευματικός from chapter two and to test it by surveying the occurrences of πνευματικός
in both canonical and non-canonical Greek writings. The following are four summary
paragraphs that will conclude this comparison and confirm the meaning of πνευματικός
and set the stage for a thorough study of how Paul uses the term in 1 Corinthians in
chapter four of this project.
First, the Greek term πνευματικός is a derivative adjective from the noun πνεῦμα,
and therefore the general understanding of this term in all Greek literature is “pertaining
to the πνεῦμα.” The noun πνεῦμα was used prior to the New Testament as not simply
“air” but the “movement of air,” like breath or wind, and almost always with emphasis on
the effect of such movement. On rare occasions πνεῦμα was also used to refer to the inner

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self of a person, in some cases synonymously with ψυχή, but always in opposition to
σάρξ. This includes Philo’s usage as he occasionally used the term πνευματικός in
opposition to “fleshy” forms of beings. Likewise, πνευματικός is used in opposition to
σαρκικός to describe a person or thing that is “pertaining to the πνεῦμα.”
Second, the term πνευματικός used in Christian writing, beginning in the New
Testament, reflects a significant change from previous usage, as did the use of the noun
πνεῦμα in the LXX and New Testament. It is not as though πνεῦμα always means the
Spirit of God in the LXX and New Testament, but it often does.237 Likewise, the
adjective πνευματικός predominantly was used to describe the influence of the Spirit of
God in a variety of effects and actions, including revelation, personal transformation,
resources, and the eschatological realm in which believers now exist.
Third, it is evident from Galatians 6:1 that Paul used the term πνευματικός prior
to his correspondence with the Corinthians. In fact, one might even wonder how the term
πνευματικός was used in Paul’s preaching and teaching, even to the extent that some in
Corinth may have heard it from him and developed further conclusions apart from Paul’s
contribution or oversight. Although some of these insights cannot be tested, the fact
remains that Paul used the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians more than anywhere else
and it appears from this usage that Paul is sending a message about how the Corinthians
are misunderstanding the term. Moreover, Paul’s use of the term demonstrates that the
Corinthians not only needed fine tuning regarding the meaning of the term πνευματικός,
but also an adjustment regarding their understanding of God’s Spirit and what it means to

237

The term πνεῦμα is used for evil or unclean spirits in the New Testament, but primarily in the
Gospels and Acts. For example, “For with shrieks, impure spirits came out of many, and many who were
paralyzed or lame were healed” (Acts 8:7, bold mine).

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have a Christian identity.
Last, given the evidence from this chapter of the general definition as well as the
specifically Christian usage of πνευματικός, it can be concluded that Paul uses the term is
to describe the agency of the Spirit of God, or the impact (influence) of this agency. This
does not preclude πνευματικός from referencing non-corporeal realities or describing
esteemed characteristics, but only points to the immanent or primary meaning of God’s
activity within people or things by the Spirit. In other words, Paul did not have in mind
some bland version of whatever people mean by the English gloss “spiritual,” but the
majority of the time Paul would have used the term πνευματικός to refer to the influence
of the πνεῦμα, and more specifically, τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ θεοῦ. In this he reveals his theology
of the Spirit in relation to the mission of Jesus and its implementation in reference to the
ekklesia, as well as the eschatological realities that the Spirit’s presence implies.

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CHAPTER FOUR: The Greek term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians
Chapter one of this project provided the background of the Corinthian problem
and the context for the Apostle Paul’s ongoing correspondence with the church he started
in Corinth. The thesis stated for this project is to demonstrate that the Apostle Paul’s
usage of the Greek adjective πνευματικός in the letter of 1 Corinthians is a corrective
response to the distorted pneumatology of some in the Corinthian church. Chapter two
observed and analyzed the formation of derivative Greek adjectives and interacted with
proposed meanings of πνευματικός expressed in various grammar books, theological
dictionaries and biblical commentaries. Chapter three has examined the way the adjective
πνευματικός was used in literature predating the New Testament, as well as all twenty-six
occurrences in the New Testament, and a selection of occurrences in the Apostolic
Fathers. The goal was to test the working definition of πνευματικός that was established
in chapter two with the way authors used it in Greek literature.
The fourth chapter, leading to the conclusion of this project, will now provide an
exegetical basis of the fifteen occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians in order to
determine the specific reasons Paul used it so often within this one letter. 238 This chapter
will analyze each of these fifteen occurrences in four different portions of 1 Corinthians
in order to fully understand the context and intentions in this letter.239 The focus here is to
assess specifically how the term πνευματικός is used in this letter to address the concerns
Paul had regarding the Corinthians based on the reports that he received while in

238
Of the twenty-six occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament, the group of fifteen in 1
Corinthians is over half. Of the twenty-four Pauline occurrences of πνευματικός, the fifteen in 1
Corinthians is almost two-thirds.
239
The four portions are chs. 1-4, 5-10, 11-14, and 15. Chapter 16 will not be discussed in this
project other than in a few references.

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Ephesus. This chapter will not only demonstrate Paul’s consistent usage of the term
πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians, but it will also thoroughly investigate Pauline
pneumatology, without which it would be impossible to define πνευματικός in a way that
aligns with Paul’s theological framework.
The following four sections in this chapter are divided up according to the general
themes that Paul addresses in 1 Corinthians. The first section of 1 Corinthians 1-4 is a
more concentrated focus on Paul’s appeal to end factionalism, even though that motif
extends throughout the entire letter to some extent. The second section of 1 Corinthians
5-10 is marked by a sudden shift in 5:1 where Paul’s focus changes from factionalism to
an issue of sexual immorality. This is followed by other moral and ethical issues having
to do with lawcourts, prostitution, marriage and divorce, and participating in the temple
feast. The third section of 1 Corinthians 11-14 is shift from the everyday moral and
ethical issues to a focus on the church gatherings where Paul addresses their dress during
their gatherings, their practice of the Lord’ Supper, and their general view of the activity
of the Spirit and their behaviour as a result. The fourth section of 1 Corinthians 15 is a
shift from the practical instruction of their gatherings to a focus on what they believe
about death and resurrection, with a specific focus on the resurrected body. Although
chapter sixteen is important to the letter, it will not be explored in this project other than a
couple of references.

4.1 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 1-4
The focus in this first section of chapter four will be on how Paul used the term
πνευματικός in the first four chapters of 1 Corinthians. The main focus is Paul’s appeal

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for the church in Corinth to stop the quarreling and jealousy that has created divisions
within the church.240 The impetus for this appeal came from an oral report that came to
him from Chloe’s people (1 Cor. 1:11). The report highlighted the emerging divisions in
the church through slogan-type statements of following or belonging to certain leaders in
opposition to others. The quarrels among the church members in Corinth were centered
around σοφία (wisdom), which in the context of Corinth in the first century meant far
more than possessing wisdom or being a wise person.241 As their pursuit of wisdom had
more to do with their status in the community and less with knowing God and living well,
Paul needed to show them what constitutes real wisdom, and how it is applied to their
lives. Real wisdom originating with the Spirit will produce unity, not division (see 1 Cor.
1:10; 11:18; 12:25). He does this by claiming that God’s wisdom is revealed in the cross
of Jesus Christ, and people engage with this wisdom in only one way: as people who
receive and live by the Spirit. The three occurrences of πνευματικός in chapters two and
three not only correct the Corinthian point of view but reinforce a life by the Spirit lived
in unity.

The issue Paul identifies
The main appeal that sets the agenda for at least the first four chapters of the letter
(and perhaps the entire letter) is 1 Cor. 1:10-17.242 Paul begins in verse ten with his

240

It is difficult to know how great these divisions had become at this point. Perhaps the quarrels
and jealousy were showing signs of divisions and Paul’s letter was intended to address the emerging
quarrels before actual divisions occurred. In either case, it was an ever-present reality that became the main
focus for Paul in the opening of the letter of 1 Corinthians.
241
See chapter two for the meaning of σοφία in 1 Corinthians. Although the divisions in Corinth
were centred around σοφία and appeared to be about leadership rivalries, much of this emerged because
certain church members had challenged Paul’s claims to apostolic authority. This is demonstrated most
clearly in chapters four and nine of 1 Corinthians and the entire letter of 2 Corinthians.
242
Margaret Mitchell, Ben Witherington III and Richard Hays all make an argument for 1 Cor.

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appeal: Παρακαλῶ δὲ ὑμᾶς, ἀδελφοί, διὰ τοῦ ὀνόματος τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἱησοῦ Χριστοῦ
(“I appeal to you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ”). The term
παρακαλέω is also translated “comfort” and “encourage” in the New Testament and is
used by Paul intensively in 2 Corinthians.243 In the opening appeal in 1 Cor. 1:10,
παρακαλέω is clearly an appeal with some urgency.244
The rest of 1 Cor. 1:10 includes three phrases of instruction. The first is, ἵνα τὸ
αὐτὸ λέγητε πάντες (“that all of you agree with one another in what you say”). Although
in a word-for-word translation this may appear to be instruction for uniformity, it would
be a mistake not to identify this idiomatic phrase as an appeal to unity in their diverse
thoughts. Witherington mentions J. B. Lightfoot’s insight, “that this clause (to auto
legete) is a classical expression connoting ‘to make up difference’ between individuals or
groups or even ‘to be at peace’ (cf. Thucydides 4.20; Aristotle Politics, 2.3.3).”245
The second phrase is καὶ μὴ ᾖ ἐν ὑμῖν σχίσματα (“and that there be no divisions
among you”). The term σχίσματα means “tears” or “divisions” and is used to describe
physical tears such as cloth (Matt. 9:16; Mark 2:21), and also divisions such as conflict
between people (John 7:43; 9:16; 10:19).246 Twice more Paul uses the term σχίσμα in 1

1:10 to stand as a thesis statement not only for the first four chapters of 1 Corinthians, but for the entire
letter. For Mitchell, the entire letter “is throughout an argument for ecclesial unity as centred in the
πρόθεσις or thesis statement of the argument in 1:10.” Mitchell, Rhetoric of Reconciliation, 1.
Witherington, Conflict and Community, 94. Richard Hays, 21. The church in Corinth was experiencing
division, or perhaps what might have been the beginning of division, and unity is the main focus for Paul’s
appeal in this letter.
243
BDAG, 764-765. The term παρακαλέω occurs in the New Testament 109 times, eighteen of
which are in 2 Corinthians (the first six appearing in chapters one and two).
244
Witherington suggests that παρακαλέω is used by Paul as proclamation of the gospel, here
especially in regards to the unity in the gospel. Paul employs a rhetorical strategy to overcome the divisions
but does so in the context of the gospel he preached. Witherington, 95.
245
Witherington, 96.
246
BDAG, 981. These five occurrences of σχίσμα in the Gospels, together with the three in 1
Corinthians, are the only occurrences of σχίσμα in the New Testament. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the
Corinthians, 116.

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Corinthians. In chapter eleven Paul writes to the Corinthians, “In the first place, I hear
that when you come together as a church, there are divisions among you, and to some
extent I believe it” (1 Cor. 11:18). This is written in the context of the Lord’s Supper
where Paul confronts those who were eating all of the food, leaving nothing for poorer
members of the church and drinking all the wine to the extent of getting drunk (1 Cor.
11:21). In so doing they disregard the “spiritual” significance of this food in relationship
to Jesus’ death and the creation of the church. In the context of the Lord’s Supper, the
divisions seem to be socio-economic, although the only thing that is clearly stated is that
“some” are going hungry.247
Then in chapter twelve Paul writes, “But God has put the body together, giving
greater honor to the parts that lacked it, so that there should be no division in the body,
but that its parts should have equal concern for each other” (1 Cor. 12:24b-25). This is
written in the context of their gatherings where Paul instructs them to embrace diversity
and to pay special attention to what they may see as “weak” parts of the body. Paul’s
hope is to prevent the natural divisions that take place when groups exclude one another
because of elitism, and in the context of chapter twelve it had to do with their expressions
of divine utterance.248
The third phrase in Paul’s opening appeal is, ἦτε δὲ κατηρτισμένοι ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ νοῒ
καὶ ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ γνώμῃ (“but that you be perfectly united in mind and thought”). The term
καταρτίζω (“perfectly united”) is used thirteen times in the New Testament, but this is the

247
Thiselton notes the context of an honour-shame culture and the social norms for the wealthy to
participate among the elite in high class dinner parties as a way of understanding the potential divisions
among the church along socio-economic lines. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 861-864.
248
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 681. For Paul, unity is not optional for the church.
Unity is at the very heart of the gospel, demonstrating the truth about Jesus Christ as the one who breaks
down the barriers so that the two might be one (Eph. 2:14-18).

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only occasion (in all English translations) where it is translated “perfectly united” (in fact,
the concept of “unity” never shows up in translation of καταρτίζω in the New Testament,
although perhaps implied). It is more common to understand this word as “to restore” or
“to prepare.”249 The root is ἄρτιος, only occurring once in the New Testament in Paul’s
letter to Timothy, “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking,
correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly
equipped for every good work” (2 Timothy 3:16-17, italics mine).250 Paul’s appeal then,
in 1 Cor. 1:10, is to be a community that is mended together for the purpose for which it
was created, and not to continue tearing themselves from each other.251 Paul’s desire is
for the Corinthians to live in a “mended” state by stating “be restored.” Τhe perfect
participle form κατηρτισμένοι in the periphrasis indicates a state or condition to be
desired, and it is better translated “but be restored with each other by having the same
mind-set” (1 Cor. 1:10).
The divisions may have manifested themselves in various ways but as Richard
Hays notes, “Paul’s remarks here suggest that the emergent factions may be created more
by personal allegiance to particular leaders than by clearly defined theological
differences.”252 Paul tells the Corinthians that Chloe’s people reported back to him (1

249
BDAG, 526. The cognate noun καταρτισμός, occurring only once in the New Testament (Eph.
4:12), has a similar meaning and is used in Ephesians to denote the idea of “equip” rather than “restore.”
Here the term καταρτίζω is in perfect passive participle form, a verbal adjective with a completed action
received. Paul indicates that the mending he recommends for them has something to do with the original
call that brought them together in the first place. In other words, Paul is imploring the Corinthians to “be”
as they once were, and therefore restored to that condition.
250
The NIV attempts to highlight Paul’s double emphasis on being equipped in 2 Timothy 3:17 by
translating the verb ἐξηρτισμένος together with the adjective ἄρτιος as “thoroughly equipped.”
251
Fee and Thiselton note the meaning of καταρτίζω as “putting into proper condition” and
“knitting together” and “mending” or “restoring” kind of imagery. Fee, The First Epistle to the
Corinthians, 54-55. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 115.
252
Richard Hays, First Corinthians, 22. It is difficult to separate form and content completely, but
it appears the divisions were more about the way certain leaders presented themselves rather than the actual

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Cor. 1:11) and so it appears that the Corinthians know Chloe. He mentions her so that
they know he has a report that is valid. The report that he was given was: ἕριδες ἐν ὑμῖν
εἰσιν (“there are quarrels among you”).
The Greek term ἔρις means “engagement in rivalry, especially with reference to
positions taken in a matter, strife, discord, contention.”253 The term ἔρις is used nine
times in the New Testament and only by the Apostle Paul.254 Paul consistently used the
term ἔρις in negative ways, instructing that this is something the community of believers
should avoid (Gal. 5:19-20; Titus 3:9).
There are two occurrences of ἔρις in 1 Corinthians. The first one is in 1 Cor. 1:11
as Paul confronts them regarding divisions and then explains what he means by writing,
“What I mean is this: One of you says, “I follow Paul”; another, “I follow Apollos”;
another, “I follow Cephas”; still another, “I follow Christ”” (1 Cor. 1:12). Paul’s
explanation of their leader-fixation slogans clarifies that his use of ἔρις was a reference to
more than “quarrels” but something closer to “rivalries.”255
The second occurrence of ἔρις in 1 Corinthians is in chapter three where Paul
concludes that he could not address the Corinthians as πνευματικοῖς because they were
behaving in a worldly manner (σάρκινος), and the reason for their worldliness was
quarrels (ἔρις). They were behaving no different than the other men in Corinth who were

content they presented. The allegiance that Hays refers to is best understood in terms of preference
regarding a leader’s rhetorical skill rather than the instruction itself.
253
BDAG, 392.
254
The term ἔρις is used in the New Testament only by the Apostle Paul in the following nine
references: Rom. 1:29; 13:13; 1 Cor. 1:11; 3:3; 2 Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Phil. 1:15; 1 Tim. 6:4; Tit. 3:9
255
Bruce Winter indicates how the relationship of sophists Philostratus and Favorinus were well
documented and consistently described using the term ἔρις. Winter notes, “Philo of Alexandria, Paul’s
contemporary, like other first century writers, including Plutarch, used it and a cognate, ἐριστικός, to
describe the rivalry and contention among sophists.” Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 38.

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ζῆλος (zeal or jealousy, 1 Cor. 3:3) and were living in the same competitive way as the
men in Corinth who rivaled each other in σοφία.256
The ἔριδες (“professional quarrels” according to Bowersock) in the Corinthian
church contributed to the factions that seemed to form around leaders, even though the
leaders did not promote such following.257 Paul’s appeal lists the three main leaders as
Paul, Apollos and Cephas, and he adds a fourth group who claim Christ for themselves (1
Cor. 1:12). While the NIV translates the Corinthian slogans in 1 Cor. 1:12 as “I follow”
and the NRSV as “I belong,” the Greek text simply has a repeated ἐγὼ δὲ followed by the
genitive proper noun, rendering quite literally, “I am of Paul, and I am of Apollos …”
Paul repeats this phrase in 1 Cor. 3:4 after accusing them of “worldliness” (σαρκικός) and
“walking like mere humans” (κατὰ ἄνθρωπον περιπατεῖτε;). The word “mere” is added to
emphasize the ordinariness of their behaviour, as though they were no different than the
people of Corinth.258 Bruce Winter explains, “The concept of walking was used as a
metaphor for ‘living’ or ‘acting’, and the phrase κατὰ ἄνθρωπον refers to the fact that
they were operating in the same way as the rest of Corinthian society.”259
Winter’s argument is that some of the Christians in the Corinthian church were

256

Bruce Winter states that students of sophists were “encouraged to be extremely zealous (ζῆλος)
in demonstrating their loyalty to their teacher, promoting his professional attributes as an orator and his
educative prowess.” Bruce Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 39. The English word “zeal” may not
communicate the underlying loyalty that appears to be a part of Paul’s context. Perhaps “misplaced loyalty”
or even “misplaced enthusiasm” may be better English equivalents.
257
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 38. Relating the term ἔρις to how the sophists used it in the
first century, Winter makes the case that this word should be understood in terms of rivalry and contention
among sophists. Here, we might want to use the word “strife” to generalize the contention but to increase
the intensity from “quarrels” (NIV).
258
The Greek text here (κατὰ ἄνθρωπον) does not necessarily indicate the need to add “mere,” but
the context of Paul’s use of σαρκικός leaves room for some sort of qualifier to indicate that Paul is not
simply telling them that they are acting like not just any humans, but acting like a certain kind of human
that resembles the attitudes and behaviours of other humans in Corinth who were caught up in rivalries and
jealousy. Generally speaking, this refers to following human ways of thinking and behaving, ignoring the
wisdom that comes from God for human decisions and actions.
259
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 40.

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viewing church leaders in a similar way as they viewed the sophists. Winter states, “In
[Paul’s] day the term ‘sophist’ was not a pejorative one but was used of those virtuoso
orators who possessed a large public following and participated in the secular assembly
(ἐκκλησία) of the city.”260 A follower of these sophists would have been called μαθητής
(disciple).261
Paul does not use the noun μαθητής (disciple) or the verb μαθητεύω (to disciple)
in the Corinthian correspondence or any of his letters in the New Testament.262 As Bruce
Winter notes, the word μαθητής was not a term Jews or Christians came up with, but was
a common term to refer to “a pupil of a teacher.”263 He counts one hundred and ninetyeight occurrences in the rise of the First Sophistic movement of the fifth century B.C.,
with the majority in Plato and Isocrates.264 Although there is a gap in the century or two
before Christ, the occurrences of μαθητής in first century AD literature increase with the
rise of the Second Sophistic.265
A student who enrolled in the various elitist schools of wisdom in the first
century was called a μαθητής (disciple) and the understanding was that they were a
student or learner of a certain σόφος (teacher). According to Dio Crysostom, the μαθητής

260

Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 32. Winter provides research from G.W. Bowersock to
understand the professionalization of sophists in Paul’s day that differed from how sophists may have been
viewed by Plato and other during a previous era.
261
Witherington, Conflict and Community in Corinth, 101.
262
The term μαθητής is used exclusively in the gospels and Acts two hundred and sixty-one times.
The term μαθητεύω is used exclusively in the gospels and Acts four times, usually understood as “to be a
disciple” or “to act like a disciple.” However, the cognate μανθάνω (“to learn”) is used twenty-five times in
the New Testament, sixteen of which are found in the Pauline corpus.
263
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 32.
264
Ibid.
265
Winter does not comment on the use of μαθητής in the gospels a decade or two later. The use
of μαθητής in the gospels may suggest it as a more acceptable term for Hellenistic Judaism. It is likely
Jesus did not refer to the Twelve as μαθητής but perhaps used talmid, the Aramaic and Hebrew word for
“scholar” which might be the term (or concept) that later translated into μαθητής in the gospel writings (see
1 Chronicles 25:8 for a comparison with μανθάνω (“to learn”).

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was ζηλωτής (passionately loyal). This is also confirmed in K.H. Rengstorf’s research in
TDNT, noting the significance of μιμεῖσθαι (imitate) as a way of explaining the
relationship between student and teacher.266
Although Paul includes Cephas as a third teacher, the two principally in view
were Paul and Apollos, whom Paul continues to mention throughout his argument.267
Apollos is described by Luke as a ‘man of learning’ (ἀνὴρ λόγιος, Acts 18:24) and an
able speaker and public debater (Acts 18:28). Paul was unimpressive in the eyes of
certain Corinthians (1 Cor. 2:1-5; 2 Cor. 10:10).268 Preference for Apollos is seen more
clearly in 1 Cor. 16:12 as it appears some in the church were asking for Apollos to return
to Corinth.
If Apollos’ ministry in Corinth was consistent with Luke’s description that he
“taught about Jesus accurately” (Acts 18:25), then there is no reason to believe that the
preference that some people in Corinth had for Apollos over Paul was theological in
nature. And because Apollos spoke with fervor and spoke boldly in the synagogue (Acts
18:24-25), there is good reason to believe that preference was given to Apollos because
of his ability to speak, and not the subject matter itself.269
Apollos was most likely ignorant of these divisions (or at least the full extent of
the divisions) and may have learned of them at the same time Paul did when Chloe’s
people returned to Ephesus and gave Paul a report. But Paul makes it very clear that both
he and Apollos are not participating in the Corinthian quarrels and jealousy. Paul refers to

266

K. H. Rengstorf, μαθητής, TDNT, IV, 417.
The name Apollos is used seven times in 1 Corinthians, six of those in the first four chapters
where Paul is arguing against the divisions in the church (1 Cor. 1:12; 3:4, 5, 6, 22; 4:6; 16:12).
268
Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 41.
269
The potential connection Apollos may have had with Philo in Alexandria may also have
contributed to a skilled rhetoric that may have given him favour with some in Corinth.
267

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Apollos as a co-worker in 1 Cor. 3:9, and after he makes a case for the Corinthians to
view him and Apollos as stewards in chapter four, he writes, “I have applied these things
to myself and Apollos for your benefit” (1 Cor. 4:6).270 In chapter sixteen, Paul raises the
question the Corinthians have of when Apollos will return to Corinth (1 Cor. 16:12).
With what seems to express no competitive spirit, Paul urges Apollos to return. But it is
Apollos who is hesitant. It is not said why Apollos did not want to return, but it is
reasonable to think he wanted more time to pass before entering this church again under
these conditions.
One of the ways the divisions were reinforced by the Corinthians is by claiming to
belong to the leader by whom they were baptized.271 It appears some in the Corinthian
church began using their baptism experience as leverage for belonging to the best leader,
or perhaps in their view the only rightful leader.272 Paul’s lack of clarity of whom he
baptized and whom he did not baptize might even suggest his frustration over what he
would view as trivial (1 Cor. 1:14-16). Paul states he is glad that he did not baptize many
of them because he does not want them to follow him in that way. Later Paul will exhort
them to imitate him (1 Cor. 4:16; 11:1) and so the problem is not that Paul did not want
them to do as he did or believe what he believed. The problem is that Paul wanted them
to identify their allegiance to a crucified Christ (1 Cor. 1:23), which would lead them into
unity, instead of separating from each other further by insisting on belonging to a human

270

Gordon Fee adds that there is no indication that the leaders mentioned in the Corinthians’
slogans are party to this favouritism, especially noting Apollos’ reluctance to return. Fee, The First Epistle
to the Corinthians, 57.
271
Later in this letter, Paul links baptism with Spirit (10:2 and 12:13) and notes further some
confusion about baptism among the Corinthians in chapter 15. One might wonder if baptism was also a
misunderstood way of gaining access to wisdom and Spirit in the context of their leader preferences.
272
Gordon Fee rightly concludes that the Corinthian slogan “into the name of” refers to allegiance,
“and thus entered into an enduring relationship with, the one into whose name one has been baptized.” Fee,
1 Corinthians, 63.

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leader.
Although Paul elsewhere promotes Christian baptism, in Corinth it became a
source of division and he concludes the opening appeal in chapter one with, “For Christ
did not send me to baptize, but to preach the gospel—not with wisdom and eloquence,
lest the cross of Christ be emptied of its power” (1 Cor. 1:17). This is the first of
seventeen occurrences of σοφία (wisdom) in 1 Corinthians, fifteen of which appear in
chapters one and two.273 Nowhere else is wisdom addressed as thoroughly in the New
Testament as 1 Corinthians. But Paul does not address wisdom because he thought it was
a good time to nail down his view of wisdom from a Christian point of view. Paul
addresses wisdom because he needed to correct a distorted view of wisdom that had taken
root in the Corinthian church.
In order to fully confront the wisdom the Corinthians were enthused about, Paul
began by separating his own ministry from the Corinthian’s current view of what σοφία
entailed. Ben Witherington writes, “Paul came to Corinth with an anti-Sophistic strategy
because of what he saw to be the character of the gospel and the role of Christ’s called
agent.”274 This is why the thesis statement of the letter ends with a front against σοφία
λόγου. Paul makes certain in his initial preaching ministry to not promote a following of
Paul, nor to rest on σοφία, but on God’s power (1 Cor. 2:5).

273

The NIV’s phrase “not with wisdom and eloquence” is translated from οὐκ ἐν σοφίᾳ λόγου,
that might otherwise be translated “not in wisdom of word” (or “sophisticated speech”), meaning Paul did
not see himself as a competing rhetor in Corinth. Bruce Winter translates this phrase as “without rhetorical
skill” because he interprets Paul’s emphasis completely resting on the influence of the sophists, and so
“wisdom” has everything to do with form as opposed to the content in which Paul is preaching. Bruce
Winter, Philo and Paul, 187.
274
Ben Witherington III, Conflict and Community in Corinth, 101.

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Paul’s approach to correct the issue
The appeal to stop the divisions and be “perfectly united” in 1 Cor. 1:10
combined with the repeated slogan-type statements of belonging to certain leaders in 1
Cor. 1:12 and 3:4 are not the problem in the church at Corinth, but the symptom of the
problem that was made known to Paul. The problem has more to do with a pursuit of
status within the community, and this pursuit was motivated by σοφία (wisdom). The
results of this pursuit produced competition, preferences, and ultimately behaviours that
were elitist and exclusionary which created rivalries. Paul’s charge, according to Winter,
was “that they had replicated in the Christian community the secular elitist educational
model which was promoted by the sophists.”275 There was also a Jewish influence in the
pursuit for σοφία and so with a variety of contributing factors in Corinth Paul confronts
the Corinthians on their pursuit of “human wisdom” and points them toward a crucified
Messiah to understand what he will call “God’s wisdom.”
The first approach Paul takes to further appeal to the Corinthians to stop dividing
is to explain the inadequacy of human wisdom, which Paul refers to as μωρία
(foolishness). The noun μωρία occurs only five times in the New Testament, all five in
the first three chapters of 1 Corinthians.276 The explanation Paul gives is in three parts:
the foolishness of the message (1 Cor. 1:18-25), the foolishness of the recipients of the
message (1 Cor. 1:26-31); and the foolishness of the messenger (1 Cor. 2:1-5).277 Each

275

Bruce Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 43.
The five occurrences of μωρία are 1 Cor. 1:18, 21, 23; 2:14; 3:19. Related to the noun μωρία is
the cognate adjective μωρός (foolish) which is where we get our English term “moron.” The term μωρός
occurs twelve times in the New Testament, including four in 1 Corinthians (1:25, 27; 3:18; 4:10). The
cognate verb μωραίνω (make foolish) occurs in the New Testament four times (Matt. 5:13; Luke 14:34;
Rom. 1:22; 1 Cor. 1:20).
277
Fee provides a similar outline of 1 Cor. 1:18-2:5, noting that each part “is predicated on the
same reality, namely that the message of the cross is not something to which one may add human wisdom,
276

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part builds toward Paul’s ultimate focus, that God’s wisdom is expressed in the cross of
Jesus Christ, and this wisdom can only be known through the power of the Spirit. The
Corinthians would agree with Paul that access to this wisdom is through the Spirit, but
their version of power and understanding of the significance of the cross was
misconstrued.
Paul begins with an opening statement that the message of the cross is μωρία to
those who are perishing, but this same message is the power of God to those being saved
(1 Cor. 1:18). Paul challenges them to bring forward their σοφός (wise person), their
γραμματεύς (Jewish scribe or scholar), and their συζητητής (Greek sophist).278 In the
context of the Second Sophistic, Paul is calling for the best leaders, both Jew and Greek,
in the practice of declamation. His challenge to them is not simply to engage in empty
rhetoric. Paul actually believes that through the crucified Messiah God has made the
world’s wisdom foolish, concluding that it is this Messiah who is the power of God and
the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:24).
Paul continues in 1 Cor. 1:26 by shifting the focus onto the Corinthians
themselves, the recipients of this “foolish” gospel message. Although there have been
healthy debates regarding the socio-economic demographics of Paul’s converts in
Corinth, recent research has shown that they were not all poor, that there were some in
the church in Corinth who were wealthy, even though not many. In fact, Paul makes plain
that “not many of them” were σοφοὶ (and Paul adds κατὰ σάρκα to make clear he is
in any form, and thereby make it superior; rather, the cross stands in absolute, uncompromising
contradiction to merely human wisdom.” Fee, 1 Corinthians, 69.
278
Bruce Winter, Philo and Paul, 188. The third term συζητητής occurs only here in the New
Testament. Although somewhat difficult to specify the meaning, Winter agrees with H.A.W. Meyer, E.A.
Judge and Héring that it refers to orators or sophists. Winter states that Meyer “suggested that ὁ συζητητής
described those engaged in sophistic disputes, citing in support Xenophon’s observation that συζήτησις was
in vogue among the sophists.” Winter, Philo and Paul, 189.

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referring to human wisdom), not many were δυνατοί, and not many were εὐγενεῖς.279 A
straightforward reading would leave us with an understanding that not many of the
Corinthians who converted to Christianity during Paul’s first visit to Corinth were wise,
influential or of noble birth, obviously referring to the social elite of Corinth.280 His
admonition then is to help the Corinthians understand that it was not something natural
within them that gained their access to God, but a gift of grace from God. By explicitly
referring to their own callings, Paul demonstrates that σοφία is not primarily a human
project.281
In 1 Cor. 2:1, Paul finally turns the focus to himself as the foolish bearer of the
gospel message, “And so it was with me, brothers and sisters. When I came to you, I did
not come with eloquence or human wisdom as I proclaimed to you the testimony about
God” (2:1). Paul places himself among the foolish recipients as one who was chosen for
the proclamation of this message. He admits he didn’t come to them with eloquent words
as to appear wise. In fact, he came with fear and trembling, and he concludes, “My
message and my preaching were not with wise and persuasive words, but with a
demonstration of the Spirit’s power, so that your faith might not rest on human wisdom,
but on God’s power” (1 Cor. 2:4-5). Paul brings this initial argument of a foolish gospel,
presented with no sophistication, to a close here with the kind of preaching he initially

279

This is perhaps how Paul might have described all of the churches he began in those years, at
least as they were originally formed.
280
Bruce Winter argues, based on the findings in Munck’s research, that the σοφοὶ that Paul is
referring to are the sophist students whose parents are the δυνατοί and εὐγενεῖς of Corinth. If Munck is
correct, the sophist is not just a student of wisdom (or rhetoric) but a privileged child of the wealthy class,
placed in the best schools of wisdom because of the influence of their parents. Bruce Winter, Philo and
Paul, 190-191.
281
One might note that Paul could not necessarily describe himself in this same way, as we see in
his own description of himself in Phil. 3:4-6. Yet, even here, Paul considers these qualities garbage in
comparison to the gift of God’s grace.

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brought to Corinth. Winter states, “1 Corinthians 2.4 should be seen as an explication of
1.17.”282 Paul was aware that they had a different view of power (δύναμις) than he did,
and this is made plain in his desire for them to see that it was not through power of
persuasive speech that they first turned their hearts toward the Lord, but through the
power of the Spirit. Winter summarizes, “His oratory and the contents of his message
lacked the persuasive tricks and sophisticated proofs of the sophists because he was not in
search of disciples to follow him. He wanted their confidence to rest not in the wisdom of
men but in the power of God (2:1-5).”283 Paul’s claim is that the nature of the gospel
cannot be made appealing to humans through rhetorical devices or clever speaking – that
it can only be accessed by demonstration of the power of the Spirit.
The second approach Paul uses to further appeal to the Corinthians to stop
dividing is to shift from being a critic of wisdom to speaking positively about wisdom.
Paul writes, “We do, however, speak a message of wisdom among the mature, but not the
wisdom of this age or of the rulers of this age, who are coming to nothing” (1 Cor. 2:6).
Paul now insists that he does speak a message of σοφία, but only to the τέλειος (spiritual
adults), which, of course, is Paul’s subtle way of telling the Corinthians that they are not
among the τέλειος, even though this certainly could have been the way some in Corinth
viewed themselves.284
Paul’s reference to the τέλειος (spiritual adults) in 1 Cor. 2:6 forms an inclusio
with his admonishing use of the term νήπιος (infant) in 1 Cor. 3:1, although one must

282

Bruce Winter, Philo and Paul, 188.
Bruce Winter, After Paul Left Corinth, 42.
284
The term τέλειος (mature) has the connotation of being an adult, someone who is ready to be a
contributing member of the group versus a dependent member. One should not understand Paul as
establishing his own system of status within the community, but simply referring to “growing up” so that
they can address the community without quarrel or jealousy.
283

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read 1 Cor. 3:1-4 to understand the context of Paul’s use of νήπιος in verse one. Although
Paul already acknowledged a difference in God’s wisdom and human wisdom (1 Cor.
1:24-25), everything in the letter preceding 1 Cor. 2:6 is negative toward σοφία, as
though Paul were taking a stance against any kind of wisdom in favour of foolishness
before God. His change of direction clarifies his intent and presents a twist of irony all at
once.
At the end of chapter two, Paul quotes from Isaiah 40:13 to make a final
pronouncement in this part of the argument, “The person with the Spirit makes judgments
about all things, but such a person is not subject to merely human judgments, for, ‘Who
has known the mind of the Lord so as to instruct him?’ But we have the mind of Christ”
(1 Cor. 2:15-16). His conclusion is essentially that the Spirit is the key to becoming a
“spiritual adult” who is given divine wisdom by revelation, and thus such individuals are
no longer relying on human wisdom only as others who are without the Spirit. What Paul
clarifies in chapter three is that “spiritual adults” do not find themselves in fits of jealousy
and quarrels with each other, behaviours that demonstrate that although the Spirit is
present, it was not the way these Corinthians were living.
There are two observations to make regarding Paul’s quotation from Isaiah. The
first observation is to note that Paul quotes Isaiah from the LXX which has translated the
Hebrew ruach (spirit) as νοῦς (mind), instead of πνεῦμα (spirit). Although πνεῦμα and
νοῦς were often used interchangeably, Paul is obviously following the LXX and further
may want the Corinthians to understand that having the “same mind” (1 Cor. 1:10) may
have something to do with Christ. The second observation to note is Paul’s shift from
“mind of the Lord” to “mind of Christ.” Fee notes that for the purposes of this argument

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it may not be a significant point, but it certainly does reveal something about Paul’s
Christology: “For him Christ is Lord; therefore when the OT speaks of the Lord, he sees
in such language references to Christ himself.”285
Paul’s assessment of the Corinthians, then, is that they in fact are not τέλειος (1
Cor. 2:6), which will have functioned as a critique of their σοφία.286 His assessment that
they are νήπιος in 3:1 is clarified by referring to their quarrels and jealousy in their
pursuit to compete with each other, just like all of the other men in Corinth compete
under the influence of σοφία. This is the childish and “worldly” (σάρκικος) posture
which keeps them from being πνευματικός, or that keeps Paul from addressing them as
πνευματικός.287 In this context πνευματικός does not function as the goal of maturity but
the necessary condition for maturity, which is a Christian identity that contains the
fullness of the Spirit’s work.288
The third approach Paul takes to further appeal to the Corinthians to stop dividing
is to help them see how leadership should function in the church and therefore how they
as a church should view their leaders. Paul uses three metaphors in 1 Cor. 3:5-17 to
illustrate various things that he hopes will correct their understanding of leadership.289
The reason Paul goes to such lengths to instruct the Corinthians about a proper view of
apostles or church leadership in general is to separate this role or task from that of the

285

Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 127.
Pearson is clear on this point, “We note here that the idea of perfection, maturity, is tied to the
achievement of σοφία.” Pearson, 28.
287
Not unlike the parable of the spoiled children Jesus tells in Matthew 11:16ff and then connects
it to those having human wisdom, who have been kept from seeing the truth (Matt. 11:25).
288
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 134.
289
The three metaphors are agricultural (1 Cor. 3:5-9); architectural (1 Cor. 3:10-15); and the
temple (1 Cor. 3:16-17). The temple metaphor could be understood as the continuation of the architectural
metaphor or perhaps its result. Space limitations in this project do not permit a full explanation of what
these metaphors represent.
286

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sophists, who did not see taking responsibility for other people as a part of their work
(3:8), who were not “coworkers” (3:9), and who were not careful about how they “build”
(3:10). These prevailing attitudes of the sophists which influence their students is what
Paul is challenging for those who are in the church and confess Jesus as Christ.
In 1 Cor. 3:18-23, the text that follows Paul’s leadership metaphors in 1 Cor. 3:517, and in all of chapter four, Paul reaches the climax of his argument against the
influence of σοφία and the divisive consequences of their quarreling and jealousy with,
“So then, no more boasting about human leaders!” (1 Cor. 3:21), and, “Then you will not
be puffed up in being a follower of one of us over against the other” (1 Cor. 4:6b). Paul’s
argument stays true through all four chapters and concludes with a more passionate plea
in chapter four to bring an end to the divisions and to confront the rejection of his own
apostleship.

Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός
The Apostle Paul uses the term πνευματικός in chapters two and three to describe
the persons who are living by the Spirit. Of the four portions of 1 Corinthians that chapter
four of this project will examine, this first one is the most crucial for understanding the
term πνευματικός in regards to being a person under the influence of the Spirit. Amidst
the divisions within the church caused by quarrels and jealousy expressed for a preferred
leader, and in the context of a competing status in the community that was being
influenced by the sophistic culture in the city of Corinth, Paul turns their understanding
on its head and cancels their boast with the exhortation to live by the Spirit (πνευματικός).
The Spirit is at the centre of Christian life, but not for self-seeking leverage. Below are

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conclusions from Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in these opening few chapters of 1
Corinthians.
The first conclusion regarding Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός is that the
meaning of πνευματικός is made clear in chapters two and three of 1 Corinthians,
probably more than any other occurrence of πνευματικός in the New Testament,
primarily because of the explicit pairing with both ψυχικός and σαρκικός (and
σάρκινος).290 As has already been stated in chapter two of this project, ψυχικός
(pertaining to the ψυχή) is not a negative adjective.291 It is a neutral one that pertains to
the nature of humanity, but one specifically without the indwelling of the Spirit of God,
which leaves a deficient understanding of human life and moral decisions. The term
σαρκικός (pertaining to the σάρξ) can be used as a negative adjective, describing a person
who chooses to live from natural (fleshy) desires instead of, or contrary to, living
according to the Spirit. The adjective πνευματικός then refers to persons who have the
indwelling Spirit of God, and even more so, are living in accordance to the agency of the
Spirit, and thereby are participants in God’s great eschatological movement – the people
of God.
The second conclusion regarding Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός is that he
uses it to describe the person who is able to be in touch with God’s wisdom, which Paul
indicated was the crucified Messiah (1 Cor. 1:24). Paul’s illustration of requiring
someone to tell you their thoughts in order to know their thoughts applies to God as well

290
Gordon Fee notes Paul’s use of πνευματικός in 1 Cor. 2:13 “anticipates the antithesis” in Paul’s
use of ψυχικός, “here referring simply to any human being without the Divine Spirit (v. 14).” Fee, The First
Epistle to the Corinthians, 123.
291
Thiselton clarifies that “ψυχή stands for the principle of life in the sense of any human
existence animated by the power of life which sustains it.” Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians,
267.

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(1 Cor. 2:11). In this particular context, “God’s thoughts” refer to Messiah Jesus who was
crucified, and it is only by God’s Spirit that a person can receive understanding of the
crucified Messiah as revelation from God (v. 12). For Paul, God can only be revealed by
God, and so πνευματικοῖς πνευματικὰ συγκρίνοντες (explaining things of the Spirit with
words by the Spirit, 1 Cor. 2:13) is Paul’s instruction on how revelation works. It is not
by human achievement, but by the Spirit who is active within the believer (πνευματικός).
Paul’s Isaiah quote at the end of chapter two both confirms this argument by stating the
believer has the mind of Christ and further pronounces his appeal in chapter three to use
this mind in their daily living. Paul’s opponents may agree with this in principle,
clarifying that the degree of access would differ from person to person. In this way their
arrogance and elitism might be justified, as they perceived themselves more available for
the Spirit’s work. Paul’s conclusion will demonstrate that behaviour is what finally
reveals who has been available to the Spirit.
The third conclusion regarding Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός is that, in his
estimation, the Corinthians (or at least some in Corinth) could not be described this way
(1 Cor. 3:1).292 This is not to conclude that some in the church were without the Spirit,
but as the NIV has translated it, they were not “living by the Spirit.”293 The term
πνευματικός, then, meaning “pertaining to the Spirit,” can also be used to insinuate a
human response to the activity of the Spirit.294 Some in Corinth understood πνευματικός

292

130.

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 288. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians,

293
Fee writes, “Paul, of course, does not mean to say they do not have the Spirit. They do; and
that’s the problem, because they are thinking and behaving otherwise.” Fee, The First Epistle to the
Corinthians, 131.
294
Gordon Fee argues that Paul’s use of πνευματικός in 1 Cor. 3:1 is not a statement about the
presence of the Spirit, but a statement about the Corinthians’ response to the Spirit, “because they are
thinking and living just like those who live outside the household of faith, people who know nothing of the

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as a badge of honour or a symbol of their advanced wisdom, used to promote their status
in the community as those who had “arrived” or had achieved full maturity (τέλειος – 1
Cor. 2:6). Paul’s use of πνευματικός indicates a dynamic interplay between Spirit activity
and the human response, resulting in conduct and behaviours akin to God’s kingdom that
emerge from the Spirit’s activity in and through the believer. His understanding of
πνευματικός results in people becoming “spiritual adults” capable of contributing to the
community.295
The Corinthians’ frame of reference was still the status-seeking culture of Roman
Corinth, no doubt modeled by the schools of wisdom which establishes the teacher as a
guru. What kept the divisions and the rivalry alive was their boast. Paul labelled their
boast φυσιόω (puffed up) and indicated that this ζῆλος (misplaced loyalty) toward
leadership is inappropriate for the church (1 Cor. 4:6). Paul confronts the factions that
have formed in the church at Corinth, the people who are “puffed up” and lending
themselves to something akin to personality cults, challenging the quarrels and declaring
that this wisdom they have achieved is not, in fact, the wisdom of God. Alongside this
appeal and admonition Paul uses the term πνευματικός to refocus the Corinthians to an
identity in Christ that is marked by the Spirit and not by the human leader they belong to,
which lends itself to all of the quarrels and strife that occurred as a result of these
competing postures.296

Holy Spirit.” Eventually one might consider if a person’s behaviour is throwing into question whether the
Spirit is in fact indwelling the person. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 132.
295
See footnote 77.
296
“So then, no more boasting about human leaders! All things are yours, whether Paul or Apollos
or Cephas or the world or life or death or the present or the future—all are yours, and you are of Christ, and
Christ is of God” (1 Cor. 3:21-23).

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The term πνευματικός, then, is Paul’s way of describing the eschatological work
of the Spirit in a person’s life, the process of sanctification, and the pursuit of holiness as
the believer lives now in the realm of the Spirit’s influence, contributing to the
development of the people of God. The characteristics, or fruit, of “living by the Spirit”
will be demonstrated when people are able to resolve and move past their rivalries and
jealousy that emerge from selfishness, pride, and exclusivity, as was seen in the church in
Corinth (1 Cor. 1:11; 3:3). Paul’s hope was to help the Corinthians understand that the
human goal is not a transcendent mind but the mind of Christ (1 Cor. 2:16), which comes
about by the Spirit of Christ (1 Cor. 2:11). Only then can people align their lives with
God and receive the knowledge of God. It is by the Spirit of God alone that one comes
into relationship with God through Christ. Paul turns the Corinthians’ understanding of
the word πνευματικός upside-down as well as their understanding of what it means to be
a Spirit-person. He helps them to see that the Spirit-life is one that brings the church into
unity and leads people away from rivalry which causes division.

4.2 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 5-10
The focus in this second section will show how Paul used the term πνευματικός in
1 Corinthians 5-10. In these chapters Paul addresses a number of issues in the church, the
key themes being sexuality and marriage (1 Cor. 5:1-13; 6:12-20; 7:1-40), the court
system (1 Cor. 6:1-11), and eating idol meat bought in the marketplaces and celebrated in
the pagan temples (1 Cor. 8-10). The main focus in these six chapters is Christian
freedom and how the Corinthians misunderstood this idea of freedom as license to live
however they wanted, or as their Roman citizenship permitted (an example of human

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wisdom), instead of what is good for all the believers (an example of divine wisdom).
The only occurrences of the term πνευματικός in this section are in chapters nine and ten.
While the one occurrence in chapter nine is interesting, the three occurrences of
πνευματικός in chapter ten will be the primary focus and will demonstrate Paul’s warning
against the misbehaviours of the Corinthians and will demonstrate his understanding of
the activity of the Spirit in the church.

The issue Paul identifies
After Paul concludes the matter of divisions in the church in 1 Corinthians 1-4, he
signals a change in focus by referring back to the report that Chloe’s people brought him
in Ephesus (1 Cor 1:11). He writes, “It is actually reported that there is sexual immorality
among you” (1 Cor. 5:1a). With the introduction of πορνεία (sexual immorality) Paul
moves on from divisions in the church to confront the Corinthians on a few moral issues
that had emerged.
Even though there is a shift in focus at 1 Cor. 5:1, there is also some continuity.
The continuity is identified by the attitude of some in the Corinthian church that Paul
identifies as φυσιόω (pride).297 The term φυσιόω only occurs seven times in the New
Testament, six of which are in 1 Corinthians.298 The first three of the six occurrences in 1
Corinthians are in chapter four, as Paul uses this term to challenge their “pride” in
judging his apostleship as the final argument against the divisions emerging in the
Corinthian church (1 Cor. 4:6, 18, 19). The fourth occurrence at the beginning of chapter

297

The term φυσιόω is defined as “to cause to have an exaggerated self-conception, puffed up,
make proud.” It is noted that this term is largely limited to Christian literature. BDAG, 1069.
298
The term φυσιόω occurs in the New Testament seven times, once in Col. 2:18, and the
remaining six in 1 Corinthians (4:6, 18, 19; 5:2; 8:1; 13:4).

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five applies to the tolerance the church has for a man who is sleeping with his father’s
wife (1 Cor. 5:1-2). Although the topic being addressed has changed from chapters four
to five, the challenge of the Corinthians’ prideful behaviour has stayed the same.
Paul will use the term φυσιόω twice more in this letter. The fifth occurrence is in
1 Cor. 8:1 as Paul clarifies his approach to γνῶσις (knowledge) in the context of love. The
sixth occurrence is in chapter thirteen as Paul comes to the apex of his vision for Spirit
activity in the church with a great poem on the centrality of love, exclaiming that there is
no φυσιόω in love (1 Cor. 13:4).299 Paul is clear about his consistent negative use of
φυσιόω and considers it an attitude incompatible with love, and as will be demonstrated,
incompatible with the activity of the Holy Spirit.
The first issue of φυσιόω that Paul identifies in this section is a man who is
sleeping with his father’s wife. As Gordon Fee points out, the Greek text simply states
that he “has” his father’s wife, which obviously is a euphemism for sex.300 This
euphemism is also used today, but it usually means a “one-night stand” scenario of sex.
In the first century, this implied an ongoing intimate relationship.301 The description of
“father’s wife” probably refers to a stepmother, meaning that the man’s biological mother
had been divorced or passed away. The stepmother in this situation was not a part of the
church as Paul only addresses the actions of the man, who clearly was a member of the
church in Corinth.

299
There is also a significant shift in topic from chapter ten into chapters eleven through fourteen,
yet, Paul’s final conclusion about φυσιόω that he begins in chapters four and five is only seen in chapter
thirteen. This is a good reminder that this is a letter that has many layers to it and is not so easily partitioned
for theological purposes.
300
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 219.
301
Ibid.

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Yet, Paul does not address the incestuous man directly but the whole church,
perhaps especially those who took leadership responsibility. Although this incestuous
relationship would have been sin in Paul’s understanding, it is his exhortation to the
church for tolerating this sin that is Paul’s primary focus, a sexual union that not even the
Romans tolerate.302 Paul is not exercising authority over this man directly, but exhorting
the church to exercise authority over him.303 In Paul’s view, this is a sin that has been
unchecked and tolerated because of φυσιόω.304
The second issue of φυσιόω Paul identifies in this section is the practice of some
in Corinth of taking fellow church members to court to resolve disputes. Paul does not
repeat the term φυσιόω here, but the prevailing attitude continues as Paul writes, “The
very fact that you have lawsuits among you means you have been completely defeated
already” (1 Cor. 6:7). As Paul called for their σοφός (wise person) in chapter one (1 Cor.
1:20), he now asks again, “Is it possible that there is nobody among you wise (σοφός)
enough to judge a dispute between believers?” (1 Cor. 6:5b).305
What highlights the Corinthian’s pride in this text, even without the direct use of
the term φυσιόω, is Paul’s alternative action for them in opposition to using the courts:

302
The Greek phrase translated “that even pagans do not tolerate” is simply ἥτις οὐδὲ ἐν τοῖς
ἔθνεσιν, which might be more literally understand as “that is not even among the Gentiles.” There is no
“tolerate” word in this text, but the emphasis that this kind of sexual immorality is “not among the
Gentiles” is another way of talking about what the Gentiles tolerate.
303
Three times Paul commands the church to remove the incestuous man from fellowship: “hand
this man over to Satan” (5:5); “Get rid of the old yeast” (5:7); and, “Expel the wicked person from among
you” (5:13).
304
A key to help understand Paul’s use of φυσιόω is the illustration of the Passover festival (5:68). In this illustration, Paul compares φυσιόω to leaven which not only permeates the whole, but “puffs up”
the whole. To “keep” the festival is not only to affirm the sacrifice of the Passover lamb, but also to wipe
clear the leaven in order to be an unleavened batch of dough.
305
Paul is presumably using the term σοφός here in a positive sense, or in reference to God’s
wisdom or way of thinking, as opposed to the deficient human wisdom he has confronted in earlier
chapters.

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διὰ τί οὐχὶ μᾶλλον ἀδικεῖσθε διὰ τί οὐχὶ μᾶλλον ἀποστερεῖσθε (1 Cor. 6:7).306 Paul’s
invitation is for those who are wealthy enough to make use of the courts to “swallow their
pride” and choose instead to be wronged or cheated, thus sacrificing what may, in fact, be
rightfully owed to them. This invitation is a double-edged sword as Paul reverses it in
verse eight with: ἀλλὰ ὑμεῖς ἀδικεῖτε καὶ ἀποστερεῖτε, καὶ τοῦτο ἀδελφούς (instead, you
yourselves cheat and do wrong, and you do this to your brothers and sisters), which may
indicate that, at least on occasion, they were using the courts to cheat, or act unjustly
toward other people instead of bringing equity to their relationships.
The third issue of φυσιόω Paul identifies in this section is the men who were
going to the prostitutes. The term πορνεία (sexual immorality) narrowly meant
“prostitution” in ancient Greek times but had come to refer broadly to many things
considered sexually immoral.307 In this case, Paul explicitly refers to prostitution, which
is almost certainly a rebuke exclusively to the men.308
The ideology that Paul uncovers as he identifies the issue of πορνεία is a physicalnonphysical dualism where the physical body is not the real self but the temporary
receptacle of the real self. The body then is not of eternal value or not a part of what
constitutes a relationship with God, and therefore its limitations and fleshy desires do not
count against one’s relationship with God. Paul challenges an anti-somatic theology by
affirming the body as something God created, that was “bought” through the sacrifice of
Jesus, and that will be redeemed (ultimately through a bodily resurrection, 1 Cor. 15).

306

“Why not rather be wronged? Why not rather be cheated?”
BDAG, 854. Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott [compiled], A Greek-English Lexicon
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1996), 1450.
308
Paul does not make an explicit connection with the issue of prostitution and the sexual
abstinence in 1 Cor. 7:1-7, but there is a possibility the two have some connection.
307

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This dualistic ideology also appears in chapter seven as Paul addresses individuals
(probably married women?) who are abstaining from sexual intercourse with their
spouses for what appears to be ascetic ideals.309
The fourth issue of φυσιόω in this section is that some from the church in Corinth
were eating idol meat (εἰδωλόθυτος). The issue addresses eating idol meat both in the
pagan temples and in their homes after purchasing the meat in the marketplace. Paul
directly addresses the issue of idol meat and temple participation in chapters eight and
ten. In chapter nine, Paul demonstrates the heart of the issue of idol meat and temple
participation with a lengthy three-part homily to illustrate the need to abandon their socalled rights.
To fully understand the Corinthian “pride” as it emerged in the context of eating
idol meat, it is important to see the relationship it has to γνῶσις (knowledge).310 Although
the term γνῶσις is common, Paul is using it here primarily to refer to the reasons some in
the Corinthian church have justified their attendance at the temple festivals. The first
reason mentioned in the text is that idols are really nothing and there are no other gods
other than the one true God, who they now know through Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 8:4-6). The
second reason in the text is that people are not made unclean by the food they eat. Paul
writes, “food does not bring us near to God; we are no worse if we do not eat, and no

309

Paul addresses a number of different scenarios in chapter seven ranging from some who are
considering a divorce because their spouse is not a Christian, to single men who are wondering whether
they should go through with the marriage that was already planned. But most of the issues Paul addresses in
chapter seven are not directly related to φυσιόω and will not have much or any bearing on Paul’s use of the
term πνευματικός.
310
BDAG, 203. The term γνῶσις means “knowledge” and is used in the New Testament twentynine times, ten of which appear in 1 Corinthians. Although there is a general sense to the term γνῶσις that
all believers may share in what can be known about God through revelation, most of the time Paul is using
this term in 1 Corinthians it refers more specifically to a χάρισμα (1 Cor. 12:8).

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better if we do” (1 Cor. 8:8).311 Paul tells the Corinthians that their γνῶσις leads them to
φυσιόω, and in so doing, they actually do not know what they think they know (1 Cor.
8:2).
The issue of eating idol meat is then argued until the end of chapter ten, with Paul
concluding that they should not take part in the temple festivities. The problem identified
is not only for those who were participating in the temples and eating the idol meat, but
for others in the church whose consciences were bothered by this, to the point of Paul
indicating that someone’s faith had the potential to be destroyed (1 Cor. 8:11). The issue
then was not simply an individual one, but one that had consequences for the unity of the
church community.

Paul’s approach to correct the issue
The issues identified in 1 Corinthians 5-10 are moral issues and certainly Paul
would want the Corinthians to learn to behave in ways that align with the Messiah’s
ideals of sexuality, marriage, and decisions about entertainment and leisure. But Paul’s
approach addresses more than just the moral issue at hand, because he challenges the
attitude and posture that lie beneath the surface of these moral issues. For Paul, all moral
issues are theological issues. Paul’s approach to correct the issue is demonstrated in three
main ways: his responses to the slogans in chapters six and ten, his appeal to set
knowledge aside in favour of love, and finally his challenge to guard their fellowship.312
311

This teaching is certainly an echo from Jesus’ teachings about food and what makes someone
unclean (Mark 7:1-23).
312
There are, of course, many things that Paul does in these chapters to confront the issues at
hand. The three chosen are among the major turns in Paul’s argument and will highlight Paul’s theological
approach and will also help reveal Paul’s pneumatology, especially in respect to his use of the term
πνευματικός. The word “fellowship” is a reference to Paul’s use of the word κοινωνία translated as
“participation” in 1 Cor. 10:16 (NIV). As Paul brings this part of his argument to a close in chapter ten, his

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The first approach that will be examined here is Paul’s attempt to confront the
slogan-type rhetoric the Corinthians used to strengthen their resolve and justify their
actions regarding prostitution, and then later temple festivities. Paul hinges his response
to the slogans with ἀλλά. Paul’s response is not to argue against but to offer alternative
ways of thinking, which is why ἀλλά is best translated as “yet” or “rather” as opposed to
“but.”313 In response to the Corinthian slogan, Πάντα μοι ἔξεστιν (I have the right to do
anything), Paul writes, ἀλλ᾽ οὐ πάντα συμφέρει (yet not everything is beneficial), and
ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐγω ἐξουσιασθήσομαι ὑπό τινος (yet I will not be mastered by anything). This is
repeated quite similarly in 1 Cor. 10:23, although Paul changes the second response from
“yet I will not be mastered (ἐξουσιάζω) by anything” to “yet not everything is
constructive (ὀικοδομέω),” which will be explained further below.
The verb ἔξεστιν means “to be authorized to do something,” and is often
translated “it is right” or “it is permitted.”314 It occurs in the New Testament thirty-one
times, but in Paul’s letters only five times.315 Four of those five occurrences of ἔξεστιν in
Paul are the twice-repeated slogans above (1 Cor. 6:12; 10:23). This repetitive usage of a
word that Paul does not normally use is further evidence that Paul was quoting these
statements as slogans or aphorisms from some in the church in Corinth.
Instead of telling them they are wrong in their individual permissions, Paul points
them toward the community, and writes, “and yet not everything is beneficial.” Here the

focus is on the shared table of the Lord and thus the shared life in Christ that should be guarded. More
explanation on this term and Paul’s final point will be given in the following pages.
313
This does not mean the idea expressed is not adversative, but that the tone is slightly different.
In this context Paul is not opposing their rights, he is opposing their choice to live within their rights.
BDAG, 44.
314
BDAG, 348.
315
The term ἔξεστιν occurs in 1 Cor. 6:12 twice, 10:23 twice, and once in 2 Cor. 12:4. All other
occurrences of ἔξεστιν in the New Testament are in Acts and the Gospels.

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term συμφέρω (beneficial) is used to invite the Corinthians to consider how their actions
affect other people. The verb συμφέρω occurs in the New Testament fifteen times and of
those fifteen, Paul’s only five uses occur in the Corinthian correspondence, three of
which occur in 1 Corinthians.316 It is a compound word that modifies φέρω (“to bear” or
“to bring forward”) with the prefix σύν (“together” or “with”) to describe “mutual
benefit” or “common good.”317 The third and final occurrence of συμφέρω in 1
Corinthians is in chapter twelve where Paul indicates that the goal of the activity of the
Holy Spirit in the church through gifts, services, and workings is that everyone would
benefit (1 Cor. 12:7).
As Paul develops his case against the Corinthian pursuit of freedom through
γνῶσις, he chooses to use the noun ἐξουσία (authority, right) instead of the cognate verb
ἔξεστιν (it is permitted), which was the slogan word the Corinthians were using. ἐξουσία
is a noun that occurs in the New Testament one hundred and two times, ten of which can
be found in 1 Corinthians, most of those in chapter nine. We see the verb form of ἐξουσία
in 1 Cor. 6:13 as Paul responds to their slogan “I have the right to do anything” with “I
will not be mastered by anything” (ἐξουσιάζω).318 For Paul, to abandon his right to
something (ἐξουσία) is to guard against being mastered by that thing (ἐξουσιάζω).
Although the first occurrence of ἐξουσία is in chapter seven having to do with
marriage (7:37), it seems unlikely that Paul was using it here to signal the issue of

316

The verb συμφέρω occurs in 1 Cor. 6:12; 10:23; 12:7; and 2 Cor. 8:10; 12:1. The cognate
adjective σύμφορος, meaning “advantage” or “profitable” occurs in 1 Corinthians 7:35 and 10:33, the only
two occurrences of σύμφορος in the New Testament. Mitchell argues these five occurrences in 1
Corinthians in various forms, along with other terms describing “advantage” (μισθός in 9:18; κερδαίνειν in
9:20; ὠφελεῖν in 13:3; 14:6; ὄφελος in 15:32) “are all ways of expressing the deliberative appeal to
advantage.” Mitchell, 33.
317
BDAG, 960
318
The verb form of ἐξουσία is ἐξουσιάζω, and it occurs in the New Testament four times: Luke
22:25; 1 Cor. 6:12; 7:4 (2x).

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freedom in the Christian life. The next occurrence is in chapter eight and the bulk of
occurrences are in chapter nine, all of which are precisely targeting the issue of freedom.
In 1 Cor. 8:9 Paul writes, “Be careful, however, that the exercise of your rights
does not become a stumbling block to the weak.” The NIV adds “exercise” to elaborate
that the term ἐξουσία here is not just referring to the fact that these rights exist but to the
actual implementation of these rights that are having an effect on fellow Christians. It is
precisely the exercising of the rights that Paul addresses as something they are in control
of and can moderate. In other words, they are not required to follow through with what is
permitted to them. It is simply their right and they have chosen to indulge in that right.319
Paul is recommending, and modelling, that the Corinthians abandon their rights, or
perhaps employ their rights wisely (i.e., guided by the Spirit). For Paul, the responsibility
to love and care for each other is more important than expressing one’s freedom and
rights.
His second set of responses when he repeats the slogan in 1 Cor. 10:23 begins in
the same way but the second response is changed to ἀλλ᾽ οὐ πάντα οἰκοδομεῖ (yet not
everything is constructive). The verb ὀικοδομέω means “to build up” or “to strengthen”
and is used five other times in 1 Corinthians, certainly making the case for one of the
main messages Paul has for the Corinthians.320 This emphasis to build each other up
begins in this section and will increase in emphasis in chapter fourteen, moving further
the central theme of unity in the body as the work of God’s Spirit.

319
Thiselton asserts that it is precisely an issue of choice in this text as opposed to the “overworn
issue of ‘conscience’.” Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 649.
320
Paul includes a significant emphasis on “building” in this letter, including a few references to
“temple.” Paul uses the verb “to build” (ὀικοδομέω) and the noun “building” (ὀικοδομή) six times in
chapter fourteen to make clear that the point of their gatherings should be to build each other up (as
opposed to the “tearing” (σχίσμα) that had been reported).

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The second approach Paul uses to confront the φυσιόω in the Corinthian church is
the way he addressed how their φυσιόω emerged as γνῶσις, which did not lead them to
compassion but to self-seeking liberty. Paul first uses the term γνῶσις in the opening
salutation, “I always thank my God for you because of his grace given you in Christ
Jesus. For in him you have been enriched in every way—with all kinds of speech and
with all knowledge — God thus confirming our testimony about Christ among you” (1
Cor. 1:4-6).321
In chapter eight Paul first responds to the issue of idol meat by restating a
Corinthian slogan regarding γνῶσις: “we all possess knowledge” (1 Cor. 8:1b). Paul does
not disagree with some of the conclusions they have in their knowledge: there is only one
God (8:6) and food does not make a person unclean (8:8). Paul disagrees that “all” of
them possess such knowledge (1 Cor. 8:7). Paul also challenges the manner in which they
conduct themselves in the community regarding this knowledge (1 Cor. 8:2). His analysis
in the opening three verses of chapter eight is that γνῶσις incites φυσιόω, while the effect
of ἀγάπη is ὀικοδομέω (build up). Paul will use the terms γνῶσις and ἀγάπη together
again in chapter thirteen, exclaiming, “If I have … all knowledge, … but do not have
love, I am nothing” (1 Cor. 13:2). In both cases Paul is not indicating that knowledge is
wrong, but simply that it does no good if there is no love.
Three more times Paul uses the term γνῶσις to caution the Corinthians: not
everyone has γνῶσις (8:7); against attending temple meals with all of their γνῶσις (8:10);
and against destroying a brother or sister by your γνῶσις (8:11). The problem that
emerges from this group in Corinth who expressed liberty because of their γνῶσις is that

321

The remaining nine occurrences of γνῶσις in 1 Corinthians are in the latter part of the letter
beginning with five occurrences in chapter eight.

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others whose conscience were not as strong were being influenced back into idol
worship, thus having their newly formed faith destroyed (1 Cor. 8:9-11).
At the heart of Paul’s rebuke are the opposing forces of γνῶσις and ἀγάπη. Paul is
not against knowledge or against knowing things. In fact, he agrees with the Christians
who seem to have greater knowledge concerning the mythical nature of the Greek and
Roman gods and the idols that are worshiped in their name (1 Cor. 8:4). He agrees with
these Corinthians about eating food freely (1 Cor. 8:8). But this kind of knowledge
applied without love will lead to an arrogance that may have devastating effects on other
believers.
The third approach Paul uses to confront φυσιόω employs stories from the Torah
as “examples” (τύπος, pl. τύποι) of how things can go wrong, even when the Spirit is
present. Paul begins in the first five verses of chapter ten by recounting Israel’s
wanderings in the desert with provisions “by the Spirit” (πνευματικός) in the form of
food, water, and the rock.322 Not only were these provisions from God, but as the context
of “knowledge” might suggest, the Israelites knew these things came from God (in this
way they had divine wisdom). However, in this case the revelatory advantage proved of
little to no benefit.
Paul then recounts four specific stories from the Torah in 1 Cor. 10:6-11, all of
which had to do with idolatry, most of which had something to do with either food,
sexual immorality, or both!323 He concludes this first part of the argument in 1 Cor.

322

Here Paul indicates that the “rock” was Christ (1 Cor. 10:4).
Verse 7 recounts the story of Aaron’s golden calf in Ex. 32; verse 8 recounts the story of
leaders in Israel’s camp that ate food sacrificed to idols after having sex with Moabite women in Num. 25;
verse 9 recounts the story of snake bites in the Israelite camp which had to do with complaining about the
food in Num. 21; and verse 10 recounts a story of more grumbling, taken from either Num. 14 or Num. 16.
323

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10:12-13, which is a direct warning that the Corinthians could “fall” just as these
Israelites fell, even while having the presence of Christ and the provision of the Spirit.324
The beginning thirteen verses in chapter ten provide the basis by which Paul then
can continue in the next section to challenge their attendance at the pagan temples,
forbidding all temple participation (1 Cor. 10:14-22) and exhorting the Corinthians to
remain faithful to the “Lord’s table” and forego the “table of demons” (1 Cor. 10:21).
Here Paul makes use of the term κοινωνία (fellowship or shared participation) in 1 Cor.
10:20, declaring that he does not want the Corinthians to “participate” (κοινωνία) with
demons.325 Just as the activity of the Spirit gives people the mind of the Lord (1 Cor.
2:16), here it is the activity of the Spirit that leads to participation with Yahweh and with
Yahweh’s people (1 Cor. 10:20-21).

Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός
Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in this section of the letter is in the context of
pride (φυσιόω) that emerged in the moral issues of tolerated sexual immorality,
courtroom litigation, and participation in temple festivities which included eating idol

324
It is worth noting the difficulty of understanding “falling” in this particular context of idolatry.
Is Paul referring to eternal salvation as Fee suggests (Fee, 1 Corinthians, 507)? Did the Israelites who were
wandering in the desert “fall” out of God’s grace for eternity? Does Paul go into “strict training” to keep
from a misstep that might disqualify him from his eternal prize of salvation (1 Cor. 9:24-27)? While this
part of Paul’s warning cannot be completely ignored, it might also be worth exploring what else believers
might be disqualified from because of their idolatrous actions. Might vocation be a part of understanding
this dynamic, as the narrative of Israel in the desert so clearly illustrates: this group no longer were
adequate to represent God’s people in the new land (Num. 14:20-25; Heb. 3:18-19). Surely Paul’s “race”
was not one of keeping his salvation intact, but staying capable and reputable for God’s mission (2 Tim.
4:6-8). Paul’s warning of “falling” then is always a good reminder of our soteriological focus and also our
vocational responsibilities.
325
BDAG, 552. Paul uses the term κοινωνία twice in 1 Corinthians: on this occasion in chapter ten
and also at the end of the salutation in chapter one, where Paul spells out their identity in Christ: “God is
faithful, who has called you into fellowship with his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Cor. 1:9).

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meat.326 As Paul comes to the pinnacle of this entire argument, doing what he can to
address their arrogance in the many ways it has expressed itself, his argument culminates
in the warnings of chapter ten, “So, if you think you are standing firm, be careful that you
don’t fall!” (1 Cor. 10:12). In this section Paul uses the term πνευματικός three times in
the context of a dramatic warning for the Corinthians to not fall into the same trap that
the Israelites fell into before them. Along with observations made of the single
occurrence of πνευματικός in chapter nine, the following then are a few conclusions
regarding the term πνευματικός from this section.
The first conclusion regarding the use of the term πνευματικός in this section is
that it can simply be used in reference to the message of the gospel, which is a message
that comes by the Spirit. Paul writes in chapter nine about not receiving payment for
preaching the gospel in Corinth in order to illustrate to the Corinthians how one might
abandon a right for the sake of the gospel. His argument is that he had every right to
accept financial support from the Corinthians but he chose to not place this burden on
them. His illustration is not a guilt trip to ask for money, but to demonstrate that he had
every right to receive money. Paul writes, “If we have sown spiritual seed among you, is
it too much if we reap a material harvest from you?” (1 Cor. 9:11). Not unlike what he
wrote in Rom. 15:27, Paul uses πνευματικός as the opposite of σάρκικος, but in a
completely different way than in 1 Cor. 3:1.327 In these two cases, Paul is not using
σάρκικος to refer to bad choices or bad motivation, but simply “of the physical realm,”

326
One might wonder if Paul’s earlier statement that they collectively are the temple of God (1
Cor. 3:16-17) and that individually they also should make decisions about their bodies as though temples of
God’s Spirit (1 Cor. 6:19-20) provides an implicit criticism of those choosing to participate in the pagan
temples.
327
“For if the Gentiles have shared in the Jews’ spiritual blessings, they owe it to the Jews to share
with them their material blessings” (Rom. 15:27).

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which means he intends πνευματικός to simply mean “of the heavenly realm” or “of the
realm of God.” 328
The second conclusion regarding the use of the term πνευματικός in this section is
the implicit connection between the words πνευματικός (how the Corinthians perceived
themselves) and φυσιόω (how Paul perceived the Corinthians). Both of these words share
the notion of “movement of air” and can be used to indicate animation or agency. Paul
never makes this comparison explicit in the text, but the warning in chapter ten to not let
their confidence leave them vulnerable to temptations, even with the Spirit’s provisions,
speaks to their arrogance and pride. This pride, as already demonstrated, was expressed in
their tolerance of πορνεία, their litigation practices, and their liberated mindset when
participating in the temple festivities. The translation of φυσιόω as “puffed up” and
Paul’s accompanying leaven illustration in chapter five demonstrate the “rise” or “swell”
action of this word.
The conclusion is not recognizing the implicit connection of these two words, but
in understanding that Paul recognized the inflated impression some of the Corinthians
had of themselves. This allows Paul to use the term πνευματικός as a warning for the
Corinthians to engage with the Spirit instead of using the truth of the Spirit’s presence as
leverage for their self-sufficiency. In all of these matters the church was not able to hold
each other accountable or they simply preferred not to hold each other accountable. Paul
desired for this community to discern and make judgments within the body for the health

328

The term σαρκικὀς occurs in the New Testament seven times, the two neutral or positive
occasions (1 Cor. 9:11; Rom. 15:27) and five times in negative ways 1 Cor. 3:3 (2x); 2 Cor. 1:12; 10:4, 1
Pet. 2:11.

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of the body.329 In chapters five through seven we see Paul referring these matters to the
Spirit of God eight times.330
The third conclusion is to see Paul’s unique way of using the term πνευματικός to
describe the inanimate objects of water, food, and the rock in 1 Corinthians 10:3-4. Not
only are these occurrences of πνευματικός unique because Paul supplies a noun in each
case, but these nouns are inanimate. As already stated in chapter three in this project, the
“animating” aspect here is in the act of providing resources. Here we see the term
πνευματικός used to describe the role of God’s Spirit in supplying what was needed. This
form of divine revelation demonstrated to the Israelites (and now to the Corinthians) the
benefit of the activity of the Spirit
The term πνευματικός, then, is Paul’s way of describing the provision of the Spirit
for the people of the Spirit, and therefore the invitation to live according to the Spirit.
Paul uses the term πνευματικός to indicate the active presence of the Spirit for people to
respond to in humility, not so that people can revel in self-assurance. Paul’s use of the
term κοινωνία helps the reader understand that in the context of the Spirit’s provision,
people will make choices of allegiance that will bond them to a certain reality. The
Spirit’s invitation is for people to develop a fellowship around Christ alone. In this
invitation there is no room for pride, for over-confidence, nor for exclusive attitudes
regarding their possession of the Spirit, as will also be made evident in the next section of
chapters eleven through fourteen.

329
Among several other more indirect ways that Paul encouraged the Corinthians to make better
decisions, he also explicitly calls for them to “judge for themselves” (1 Cor. 10:15; 11:13) as a way to
invite them into exercising discernment for the good of everyone.
330
The eight times Paul refers to the Spirit of God in 1 Corinthians 5-7 are 1 Cor. 5:3, 4, 5; 6:11,
17, 19; 7:34, 40.

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4.3 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 11-14
In this third section of chapter four the focus will be on the three occurrences of
πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 12 and 14, found in the wider context of 1 Corinthians 1114 where Paul addresses issues of the church’s behaviour during their gatherings. These
four chapters in 1 Corinthians are framed by the use of the word συνέρχομαι, which
means “ to come together.”331 What is unknown is if συνέρχομαι was meant to be
understood as each house church gathering or all of the house churches gathering in one
large location.332 Although the issues of head coverings and the Lord’s Supper in chapter
eleven are important subjects in their gatherings that deserve study in their own right, for
the purposes of this project the focus will go immediately to chapter twelve where Paul
begins to explicitly address the activity of the Spirit.
Chapters twelve through fourteen are essentially one argument to correct the
misuse of γλῶσσαι (tongues) in the assembly at Corinth.333 The first three verses in
chapter twelve state Paul’s intent and the rest of the chapter demonstrates Paul’s vision
for the Christian church, using the metaphor of the body.334 Paul emphasizes the activity
of the Spirit (πνευματικός) in order to provide a better understanding of “grace bestowed”

331
BDAG, 969. Paul only uses the term συνέρχομαι seven times, all of which occur in this letter,
and only in chapters eleven and fourteen (1 Cor. 11:17, 18, 20, 33, 34; 14:23, 26). The Textus Receptus
also has an occurrence of συνέρχομαι in 1 Cor. 7:5 where it refers to uniting in an intimate relationship.
332
The difficulty with imagining one large gathering is that the total number could have at this
time exceeded the capacity of the houses owned by even the wealthiest of citizens in Corinth. This is
especially difficult when Paul adds “the whole church comes together” in 1 Cor. 14:23. In either case,
Paul’s emphasis is on the gathered church and the manner in which they “come together” and this
reinforces the central theme of unity in 1 Corinthians.
333
The term γλῶσσα means “tongue.” Many of the occurrences of γλῶσσα in the New Testament
refer to language. Depending on how one understands Luke’s usage of γλῶσσα in Acts 2, it is only Paul in
1 Cor. 12-14 that uses the term γλῶσσα as a χάρισμα, referring to mysteries of knowledge or prayer spoken
in unknown languages, which requires interpretation. BDAG, 201.
334
Gordon Fee states, “Paul’s immediate – and overall – concern has to do with what comes from
‘the Spirit of God.’” Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Revised Edition, 638.

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(χαρίσματα). Gordon Fee suggests that Paul’s opening three verses in chapter twelve help
the reader understand the main point of chapters 12-14.335 For Fee, the whole argument is
about the activity of the Spirit of God. Paul is not saying they should stop being ignorant
about spiritual gifts (12:1), but that they should stop being ignorant about the Spirit (or
things of the Spirit). For Paul it is not one single χαρίσμα that demonstrates the presence
of the Spirit in the gathered community, but the multitude of expressions or
manifestations given by the Spirit of God. Using the term πνευματικός, Paul
demonstrates his vision for a Spirit-animated assembly that forms a unified expression of
the body of Christ.

The issue Paul identifies
Chapter twelve begins with the fourth Περὶ δὲ (Now concerning) of the letter,
signalling that Paul is addressing an issue from the letter that some in Corinth had sent to
Paul while he was in Ephesus.336 Paul writes, Περὶ δὲ τῶν πνευματικῶν, ἀδελφοί, οὐ
θέλω ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν (“Now concerning things of the Spirit, brothers and sisters, I do not
want you to be ignorant”).337 Many, if not most, English translations of the Bible add the
word “gifts” here to render it either “spiritual gifts” or “gifts of the Spirit.”338 As
πνευματικός is a substantive adjective, there was no need for Paul to include a Greek
noun, but English translations prefer to supply a noun for clarification. Unfortunately, in
this case, adding the word “gifts” may distract the reader from Paul’s real purpose.

335

Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Revised Edition, 638.
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 637-638. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the
Corinthians, 909.
337
English rendering of 1 Cor. 12:1 is the author’s translation.
338
Four translations that used the generic “things” instead of “gifts” are The Message, the World
English Bible, Young’s Literal Translation, and the Jubilee Bible 2000.
336

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The term πνευματικός does not mean “gift” and is never used together with any of
the Greek words that explicitly mean “gift” in the New Testament.339 But Paul does seem
to use the terms πνευματικός and χαρίσμα in a complementary way.340 Although some
have suggested these are synonyms, as shown through English translations of the New
Testament, these two terms require some distinction. Gordon Fee points out that the
emphasis in each of these words reflects the root word (πνεῦμα = Spirit and χάρις =
grace). Fee states:
When the emphasis is on the manifestation, the ‘gift’ as such, Paul speaks of
charismata; when the emphasis is on the Spirit, he speaks of pneumatika. If so,
then both here and later (14:1) the better translation might be ‘the things of the
Spirit,’ which would refer primarily to Spirit manifestations, from the perspective
of the Spirit’s endowment; at the same time it would point toward those who are
so endowed.341
The term χάρισμα means “that which is freely and graciously given, favor
bestowed, gift.”342 With 1 Corinthians being the earliest letter in which the term χάρισμα
appears, it is difficult to know if this was a regular part of Paul’s teaching and preaching
prior to addressing the misuse or misunderstanding in Corinth. Yet in Paul’s opening
address in this letter (1 Cor. 1:7) he writes: ὥστε ὑμᾶς μὴ ὑστερεῖσθαι ἐν μηδενὶ
χαρίσματι (Therefore you do not lack any grace resources). One might say the
explanation of these χαρίσματα is found two verses earlier as Paul commends them for

339

The Greek words in the New Testament translated “gift” are: χάρισμα, δὠρημα, δωρεά, δῶρον
(the last three related to the verb δίδωμι, “I give”).
340
Although χαρίσμα is often translated “gift” in English New Testaments, it should be noted that
its usage is more nuanced than that, often being used for God’s provision. See the following paragraphs for
further insights into how this term is distinguished from other Greek terms often translated “gift.”
341
Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 638.
342
BDAG, 1081. From the word χάρις, meaning “grace” (BDAG, 1079), the term χάρισμα (plural
χάρισματα) with a -μα suffix is to express a more concrete or tangible expression of grace, often translated
“gift” (with the idea that it is an unmerited gift or a divine gift; gift from above). The term χάρισμα occurs
in the New Testament seventeen times: Romans (6x), 1 Corinthians (7x), 2 Corinthians (1x), 1 Timothy
(1x), 2 Timothy (1x), and 1 Peter (1x). Whereas the noun χάρις is used 155 times in the New Testament,
χάρισμα only 17 times, and mostly in Paul.

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being enriched in every way, “with all kinds of speech and with all knowledge” (1 Cor.
1:5). Paul does not appear to be introducing a new term or new idea to them, but simply
reminding and encouraging them, which suggests a confidence that χαρίσματα was a part
of Paul’s teaching in Corinth on his first visit.
The competitive attitude among the Corinthians can be seen no clearer than in
their exercise of χαρίσματα, the tangible expression of God’s grace (“grace
bestowed”).343 The irony is thick because these are “divine resources” (“gifts”) given
freely by God, yet they are being used for self-promotion and exclusion of others who do
not appear to have the same ability.344 Their approach to understanding how the Spirit is
manifested in the community is narrowly understood through divine utterance. This
narrow approach is made known through Paul’s opening address in 1 Cor. 12:1-3 and
also through the entire argument of chapter twelve, emphasizing unity expressed in the
application of God’s various, gracious provisions/resources for the health of the entire
body.
There are two things that should be noted in order to identify the issue as Paul
understood and expressed it in chapter twelve. The first is that Paul wanted to expand
their understanding of how the Spirit worked within the church beyond the exercise of the
χαρίσματα. For Paul, there is only one source for χαρίσματα (i.e., the Spirit), but there are
a variety of manifestations of πνευματικά (i.e., not just χαρίσματα), which are all
expressed more specifically in the context of love (see 1 Cor. 13). This is why in 1 Cor.

343
As stated earlier in this project, the term χαρίσματα is often translated as “gifts” or “spiritual
gifts” in English New Testaments, but is better thought of more generally as divine resources freely given,
or “grace bestowed.”
344
Paul alludes to this already in chapter four when he writes, “For who makes you different from
anyone else? What do you have that you did not receive? And if you did receive it, why do you boast as
though you did not?” (1 Cor. 4:7).

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12:4-6 he adds two other kinds of expressions to χαρίσματα: διακονία (service) and
ἐνέργημα (working). Paul’s view of the Spirit manifesting in the body of believers is
bigger than what is normally referred to as “spiritual gifts.”
The second thing that should be noted is that Paul does not write that the Spirit
gives “gifts” to the church, but manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7).345 Here Paul
intends for his hearers to see another revelatory aspect of the activity of Spirit, as he
indicates that what is given is disclosure through the Spirit. Verses 8-11 elaborate on the
variety of these manifestations. The point is that Paul is helping them understand these
abilities and moments they have experienced as ways that the Spirit shows or expresses
God’s self to the community, not abilities that the Corinthians possess for their own
desires or purposes.
At the centre of Paul’s concern for the Corinthians is the lack or absence of love
they had for each other, even while gathered and empowered by the Holy Spirit with
great expressions of χαρίσματα. The occurrence of the term χαρίσμα in 1 Cor. 12:31
introduces Paul’s love poem that plays a central role in his argument regarding
χαρίσματα. While Paul does not use the term χαρίσμα in this most central part of his
argument, he no doubt is challenging the Corinthians to examine their practice of
χαρίσμα on the basis of love, which he seems to refer to as “the most excellent way” (1
Cor. 12:31b).
Finally, it appears from Paul’s argumentation in chapter fourteen that some of the
Corinthians were so caught up with tongue speaking that they ignored and did not notice

345

The word φανέρωσις only occurs in the New Testament twice, 1 Cor. 12:7 and 2 Cor. 4:2. It
means disclosure, announcement. BDAG, 1048. Here is another way for Paul to argue for wisdom that is
received by revelation as opposed to the self-achieved wisdom the Corinthians appeared to be promoting.

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that people were not edified because they did not understand what was being said. It
appears that more than one person was speaking at a time during their gatherings and the
chaos that ensued was anything but orderly. While in chapter twelve Paul identifies the
theological key to the Corinthian’s misunderstanding of how the Spirit works, chapter
fourteen is more practical as to how these misunderstandings work themselves out in the
gathering.

Paul’s approach to correct the issue
Just as Paul did not fundamentally disagree with the Corinthians for having
knowledge and a desire to live according to that knowledge, Paul also did not disagree
with the Corinthians’ desire for and eagerness to express χάρισμα in their gatherings,
including the gift of tongues (1 Cor. 14:39). But as knowledge led them to be “puffed up”
without love, tongue speaking also led them to behaviours such as “exclusive χαρίσματα”
that were unhelpful in the community because of their lack of love. Paul’s task is to
affirm their enthusiasm and eagerness to be people who are animated by the Spirit of
God, but to also direct them to the true nature of the activity of the Spirit by helping them
understand the results they should anticipate from such activity.
The first approach that Paul used to correct the issue of exclusive χαρίσματα is to
clarify that there is one Spirit and the manifestations of the one Spirit are unified but
diverse (1 Cor. 12:12-14). It is not as though the Corinthians believed there was more
than one Spirit, but there was confusion about the identity of some in the church who did
not exhibit the same manifestations as others, namely divine utterance. This confusion
only has a few outcomes, including coming to the conclusion that some in the church

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were not yet born of the Spirit. While some in Corinth had a narrow, or perhaps singular
way of understanding the work of the Spirit, Paul’s correction helps them to see the
diversity in the work and activity of the Spirit within the community.
Paul’s primary way of expressing this was to use the imagery of a human body to
explain the different parts of the body that make up the church, each part representing an
expression of the Spirit of God at work in the body (1 Cor. 12:12-31). In this way, the
Corinthians who thought about the activity of the Spirit narrowly through the gift of
tongues were able to see that all of the parts (manifestations of the Spirit) are necessary
and that these resources demonstrate how the Spirit works in diversity for the good of the
entire body in its unity.
The second approach for Paul to correct the issue of exclusive χαρίσματα is to
reinforce the purpose, or end goal, for the manifestations of the Spirit. It is not clear what
the Corinthians thought the purpose of Spirit activity was in their lives, other than to
conclude the opposite of what Paul writes. Paul says it a number of different ways, but
the first clear statement comes in 1 Cor. 12:7 where Paul writes, “Now to each one the
manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good” (1 Cor. 12:7). The term
συμφέρω means “to bring together into a heap” and “to be advantageous, help, confer a
benefit.”346 Paul has already used this term twice in the letter as a rebuttal against their
slogans to exercise their rights (1 Cor. 6:12; 10:23). It is not beneficial or advantageous
in any way for some in the community to behave without considering what is good for

346
BDAG, 960. Anthony Thiselton and Margaret Mitchell emphasize that συμφέρω must mean
more than “common good” as Paul is clearly using it here, and in 6:12 and 10:23, “where building up
constitutes the common advantage.” Thiselton writes, “[T]he Spirit is at work where the public
manifestation serves the common advantage of others, and not merely self-affirmation, self-fulfillment, or
individual status.” Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 936. Margaret Mitchell, Rhetoric of
Reconciliation, 146.

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others. This third and last time Paul uses this term in chapter twelve it is used positively,
as a guiding vision for how the Corinthians should think about the way the community
should be building itself up because of how the Spirit is at work in the community. Paul
will continue on in chapter fourteen making his case that the goal for the activity of the
Spirit in the gathered church is none other than the edification of others (1 Cor. 14:5, 12).
In other words, the goal of the Spirit’s work in the community of believers is unity, which
is achieved through the benefit or advantage the whole community receives through the
manifestation of the Spirit (given to each one).
The third approach that Paul takes in this section is to give the Corinthians very
specific instructions about how to guide tongue-speaking and the utterance of prophetic
word while the church is gathered together. Nowhere else in Pauline letters do we find
such explicit instruction for speech in the gathered church, which is one clue that this
instruction has more to do with what was happening in Corinth as opposed to a rigid
formula of how the church should always operate. Two principles are seen clearly in
Paul’s concluding words in chapter fourteen. The first principle for tongue-speaking is
that words spoken in the church gathering should be intelligible, or understandable. Paul
writes, “So it is with you. Unless you speak intelligible words with your tongue, how will
anyone know what you are saying? You will just be speaking into the air” (1 Cor. 14:9).
Paul believes that words ought to instruct, not leave people confused. Paul’s instruction
takes on extra emphasis for the foreigner in their midst, writing, “If then I do not grasp
the meaning of what someone is saying, I am a foreigner to the speaker, and the speaker

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is a foreigner to me.” (1 Cor. 14:11).347 Paul concludes his point with a very clear
rationale for why it is important for people to hear and understand:
So if the whole church comes together and everyone speaks in tongues, and
inquirers or unbelievers come in, will they not say that you are out of your mind?
But if an unbeliever or an inquirer comes in while everyone is prophesying, they
are convicted of sin and are brought under judgment by all, as the secrets of their
hearts are laid bare. So they will fall down and worship God, exclaiming, “God is
really among you!” (1 Cor. 14:23-25).
The second principle for tongue-speaking that Paul outlines for the Corinthians is
that when there is some sort of divine utterance in the church gathering, it should be
orderly. Paul’s theological reasons for the church to conduct itself in an orderly way is
that God is a God of order (1 Cor. 14:33). When two people speak at one time it is not
clear whom the people should listen to. These environments are susceptible to a
competitive spirit where the louder voice is the voice that is heard. Paul gives explicit
instruction for one person to speak at a time and if another person has a word for the
congregation the one who is currently speaking should stop (1 Cor. 14:30).
With these three approaches to confront the issue of exclusive χαρίσματα, Paul
demonstrates that the gathered community is not about competition or about a certain
group that is more privileged. The goal is the unity of the body for the good of all. And
he accomplishes this by demonstrating the nature of how the Spirit of God is at work.

347

Paul’s brilliance in this statement in 1 Cor. 14:9 is lost in most English translations. The term
he uses is βάρβαρος, only used six times in the New Testament, and the 2011 NIV translates it “Islander”
in Acts 28:2, 4, “Non-Greek” in Rom. 1:14, “foreigner” in 1 Cor. 14:11(2x), and “Barbarian” in Col. 3:11.
The KJV consistently translates “Barbarian” (or “barbarous”) on all six occasions. Greeks gave this name
to foreigners whose language was difficult, as though they were just babbling, thus the derogatory “barbar” reference becoming a way to describe the foreigner in their midst. By explaining to the Corinthians
that a βάρβαρος cannot understand them was to turn the table on their logic of intelligent or sophisticated
speech. On a side note, Paul seems to actually expect a “foreigner” to occasionally show up for the
gathering of the church to check things out!

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Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός
The Apostle Paul’s three uses of the term πνευματικός in chapters twelve and
fourteen are not to present a case for gifts of the Spirit, but to argue that the activity of the
Spirit should not be limited to certain gifts or be exclusive to only a few people. The main
gift that is in focus is the gift of tongues, which was experienced by some in the church at
Corinth as the template or the exclusive criteria to demonstrate the activity of the Spirit.
Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in chapters twelve and fourteen counters this
mentality.
The first conclusion regarding the use of the term πνευματικός in this section is
that Paul does not see the activity of the Spirit as inaccessible. Paul begins by stating that
he does not want them to be “ignorant” (ἀγνοέω) about πνευματικός. Paul only uses the
term ἀγνοέω four times in 1 Corinthians. The first is in chapter ten in the warning to be
careful of flirting with idolatry. The second is our current text of 1 Cor. 12:1. The other
two are found at the close of the argument, where Paul uses it twice within the same
sentence, “But if anyone ignores this, they will themselves be ignored” (1 Cor. 14:38).
The individuals Paul was directing this instruction to did not think the Spirit was
inaccessible to them, but it appears they did feel like they had special access, inferring
limited or no access for some of the others. Paul’s focus here, then, is to demonstrate the
revelation of the Spirit and therefore the accessibility of the activity of the Spirit beyond
their limited criteria.348
The second conclusion regarding the use of the term πνευματικός in this section is
that Paul does not automatically mean “spiritual gift” when he uses the term πνευματικός.

348

ignorance.

This, of course, presumes that Paul had the wisdom from the Spirit by which to inform their

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In fact, Paul never uses the term πνευματικός and usually uses terms like χάρισμα and
δωρεά when he wants to refer to “spiritual gifts.”349 Paul goes to great lengths to describe
the variety of ways χαρίσματα is expressed, or should be expressed, in the church. He
uses the term διαίρεσις (variety, difference) three times in 1 Cor. 12:4-6 to describe the
diversity of God’s activity in the church.350 He illustrates how diversity should work by
describing each person within the church as a part of a human body. Each person is a
unique expression of God’s Spirit as each part of the body is different and has a
significant contribution to make to the body. Yet there is one body, and so this diversity
of “parts” functions within unity so that the whole body should gain benefit. This
argumentation that takes up the majority of chapter twelve, including explanations of
how some parts need more attention, or adornment, because they will otherwise go
unseen or perhaps will be seen in unhelpful ways (1 Cor. 12:22-25), are clues to the
exclusive behaviour that some in Corinth were promoting regarding their narrow views of
the evidence of the Spirit in the church. While the Corinthians’ issue was specifically
χαρίσματα, Paul’s approach to correct it was to help them see the broader activity of the
Spirit (πνευματικός) in the church.
The third conclusion regarding the use of the term πνευματικός in this section is
that Paul’s command to those who are zealous for πνευματικός (things of the Spirit) is to
pursue love (1 Cor. 14:1). Most of the χαρίσματα Paul mentions in 1 Cor. 13:1-3, that he
emphatically states amount to nothing without love, are the very same χαρίσματα that he
has explicitly stated are enabled by the Spirit in chapter twelve. One might reach the

349

Paul uses δωρεά in Rom. 5:15, 17; Eph. 3:7; 4:7.
These are the only three occasions for the term διαίρεσις in the New Testament. The verb
διαιρέω is also rare, only occurring in Luke 15:12 and 1 Cor. 12:11.
350

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conclusion that without love the activity of the Spirit leads to nothing, or at least nothing
good. One could also interpret Paul’s love poem as the full (τέλος) demonstration of the
results of the activity of the Spirit within receptive and obedient believers, which is
“faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love” (1 Cor. 13:13).
Paul’s critique of their emphasis on speaking in tongues is not a critique on
tongues itself, but a critique on how this narrow focus prevents them from doing what
they are purposed to do when they gather, which is to build each other up. Paul’s
exhortation to favour prophetic word over tongue speaking is not to create a new
hierarchy of Spirit expressions, but to reframe all of the Spirit expressions under the
purpose for which they have been given, namely, for the advantage of each one gathered
(συμφέρω).
The term πνευματικός in chapters twelve and fourteen is misunderstood when it
is simply translated “spiritual gifts,” which completely ignores Paul’s focus which was to
challenge the limited and exclusive ways the Corinthians were exercising their gifts in the
church gathering. Paul encouraged χαρίσματα but he also encouraged διακονία (service)
and ἐνέργημα (working) because these were all ways that in which Spirit was manifested
in the community for the common good (συμφέρω). Paul’s use of the adjective
πνευματικός is to help the Corinthians see a more broad and inclusive way the Spirit
works and expresses the presence of God in the community of faith.

4.4 Πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 15
In this last section the focus will be on the four occurrences of πνευματικός in 1
Corinthians 15. Chapter fifteen constitutes a slight shift from the behavioural issues of the

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first fourteen chapters to a more purely theological issue.351 The entire focus of chapter
fifteen is resurrection from the dead, and it appears that the most critical question coming
from Corinth was the nature of the resurrection body, although Paul takes this
opportunity to address a few other aspects of resurrection as well.
While the topic of resurrection in chapter fifteen is clearly a shift from the
argument in chapters twelve through fourteen regarding χαρίσματα when the believers
“come together” (συνέρχομαι), Paul’s argument about resurrection is not completely
unhinged from his appeal regarding their gatherings.352 The key is to recognize the
challenge Paul leaves the Corinthians in chapters 12-14 to not be ignorant (ἀγνοέω).353
The emphasis here is both a stab at their arrogance as people who prided themselves in
their knowledge (1 Cor. 8:1-3) and also a sobering question of whether they actually
know what they claim to know. Thus, Paul begins chapter fifteen with, Γνωρίζω δὲ ὑμῖν,
ἀδελφοί, τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ὃ εὐηγγελισάμην ὑμῖν (But I make known to you, brothers and
sisters, the gospel which I preached to you). After Paul challenges them to not be
ignorant (not-knowing) about the way the Spirit works in the church in chapters twelve
through fourteen, he continues in chapter fifteen by reminding them of the gospel he has
already preached to them earlier. As Gordon Fee states, “Now he ‘makes known’ to them
what they already know, but seem to have forgotten.”354

351

All ethical and behavioural issues are theological issues, and certainly the belief in a bodily
resurrection has ethical implications. The distinction is made in order to identify the shift in Paul’s focus to
the kind of issue Paul addresses in chapter fifteen.
352
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 799.
353
Paul only uses the term ἀγνοέω four times in 1 Corinthians. The first is in chapter ten in the
warning to be careful of flirting with idolatry. The second occurrence is 1 Cor. 12:1 as Paul launches into
his argument regarding χαρίσματα. The other two are found at the close of this argument, where Paul uses
the term ἀγνοέω twice within the same sentence, “But if anyone ignores this, they will themselves be
ignored” (1 Cor. 14:38).
354
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 799.

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Chapter fifteen of 1 Corinthians can be divided into four sections. In the first
section (1 Cor. 15:1-11) Paul lays the foundation for resurrection within the gospel
narrative. The second section of Paul’s argument (1 Cor. 15:12-34) explains how the
resurrection of Jesus is the essential event that resolves the problem of sin and death for
humanity. Here Paul concludes that there is no human resurrection without the
resurrection of Jesus as the firstfruits (1 Cor. 15:20, 23). The third section of Paul’s
argument (1 Cor. 15:35-49) addresses the kind of body that resurrection entails. In this
section the term πνευματικός appears four times to describe the nature of the resurrection
body and will be the main emphasis of this part of the project. The fourth section of
Paul’s argument (1 Cor. 15:50-58) is the conclusion in which Paul writes a final word
about the victory over death that is possible only because of the resurrection of Jesus.

The issue Paul identifies
The issue that was introduced at the beginning of 1 Corinthians and that can be
seen throughout the entire letter is that of factionalism. Although Paul was not always as
explicit throughout the letter as he was in the first few chapters regarding the divisions in
the church, it is still evident that Paul is correcting ethical and theological perspectives
amidst a people who live with internal strife.355 In chapter fifteen it was not just that there
was a theological problem regarding a correct understanding of the resurrection of Jesus.
It was that the Corinthians were quarreling about it and dividing themselves apart from
each other because of it.356

355

Mitchell, 283.
Margaret Mitchell argues for a point of view that every issue within the letter of 1 Corinthians
is in some way a part of Paul’s overall argument which has its thesis in 1 Cor. 1:10, the divisions in the
church. Mitchell, 65-68.
356

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The theological core of Paul’s argument in 1 Corinthians 15 is against at least
some people (1 Cor. 15:12, 34, 35) in the church at Corinth that have not quite grasped
the full implications of the resurrection of Jesus, including the nature of a bodily
resurrection.357 The issue on a surface level reading is that some of the Corinthian
Christians were not completely aware of the full implications of resurrection, and
therefore the effects of the gospel message of Jesus Christ. Beneath this surface reading
are issues of misunderstanding how the resurrection of Jesus provides victory over death,
how the resurrection of Jesus has direct implications for the resurrection of humanity, and
how the bodily resurrection of Jesus is a prototype of the kind of bodily resurrection
awaiting all humanity.
Although the bulk of 1 Corinthians 15 has to do with the resurrection, Paul begins
with a word of clarity around the core of the gospel message, signalling that the
eschatological views the Corinthians were expressing and perhaps even arguing about
were not cosmetic distortions, but fundamental errors. The root of their problem was a
misunderstanding of the central tenets of the gospel message.358
In 1 Corinthians 15:26 Paul clarifies that the last enemy to be defeated is death.359
There were at least some in Corinth who were not quite informed about how God was
providing victory over death through resurrection. The issue is not that the Corinthians

357

As N.T. Wright makes clear, “The overall structure and logic of the chapter thus confirms what
we would have guessed from the direction in which the rest of the letter points that this is intended by Paul
as a long argument in favour of a future bodily resurrection.” N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of
God, Christian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. III (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 314.
358
It is difficult to know if this misunderstanding of the gospel message was the whole church or
just a select few. As with other issues in his letter, Paul often writes to the whole church instead of
identifying people by name. It is reasonable to think, given the rivalries and factions, that this could
represent one of the groups within the church more directly.
359
Margaret Mitchell, Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation, 288. Paul will declare later to the
Romans that the wages of sin is death (Rom. 6:23).

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rejected eternal life, but that they did not fully understand how God was overcoming
death, or perhaps it did not really occur to them until later to consider how people who
had already died were included in the eternal life that they had now received.
One of the reasons the Corinthians were confused about their ideas of eternal life
is that people in their community continued to die after Paul left. We see a hint of this
when Paul comments about some who have “fallen asleep” in 1 Cor. 11:30b.360 Paul’s
comment here tells us that some were dying in the community and the church did not
have an answer for this reality, as though it was expected there would be no more
physical death because of their belief in the resurrection of Jesus. And then in 1 Cor.
15:29 Paul makes a comment about an activity of the Corinthians baptizing each other on
behalf of the dead. There is no precedent in Christian, Jewish or pagan history for this
activity and we simply do not have enough information to know what was going on.361
What puzzles scholars is that Paul does not take the time to reject such a practice. It
appears Paul simply brings it up, obviously knowing it was happening, and uses it to
show them that they do in fact believe something about the resurrection of the dead, even
if they were still somewhat confused by it all.
What is crucial to recognize is that this confusion or misunderstanding of what
will become of those who have already died is fundamental to the gospel itself. As N.T.
Wright states, “The creator’s answer to death cannot be to reach some kind of agreement
or compromise,” and, “Anything other than some kind of bodily resurrection, therefore, is
simply unthinkable, not only at the level of the meaning of individual verses and phrases

360

The term κοιμάω means “to sleep” and is also used euphemistically for death. For example,
Paul instructs the Corinthians that if a woman’s husband dies (κοιμάω) she is free to marry again (1 Cor.
7:39).
361
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 844-850.

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but at the level of the chapter’s argument as a whole.”362 What Wright highlights is that
the issue of understanding resurrection is not just another of the many problems the
church in Corinth was facing, it was the fundamental problem. Margaret Mitchell adds,
“For the Christian there can be only one final goal of one’s actions: the ultimate victory
in the resurrection in which all should hope and for which all should strive against the
common enemy, death.”363 For at least some in the Corinthian church, the gospel was
unclear, and so they were out of touch with how God was saving the world by providing
victory over death. This development can seem quite astonishing given the fact that Paul
was preaching and teaching in Corinth for at least eighteen months when he first planted
the church (Acts 18:11).
The Corinthian’s confusion is further demonstrated in 1 Cor. 15:12-13 where Paul
begins by stating that if there is no resurrection from the dead then it must also be true
that Jesus was not raised from the dead. The Corinthians were not knowingly rejecting
the resurrection of Jesus, but their rejection, or at least confusion, about resurrection
suggests they had not completely thought through the explicit correlation of the
resurrection of Jesus and the resurrection of humanity.
The argument in 1 Corinthians 15 culminates in Paul’s explanation of the nature
of the resurrection body, which is a clue that one of the major issues with Corinthians’
understanding of resurrection had to do with dead bodies coming back to life. As Gordon
Fee states it:
The problem for the Corinthians is with the dead and their rising, that the dead
have a future existence in some somatic form – probably from their point of view

362
363

N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 314.
Margaret Mitchell, Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation, 283-284.

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taken literally to mean reanimation of a corpse to continue bodily existence in its
present bodily form.364
The mindset of the Corinthians would have been largely influenced by Platonic
dualistic theology. Not only would they have viewed a person as both body and soul
(material and nonmaterial), but they would have regarded the material, or physical, as the
lesser part of the person. Paul has already uncovered this theological view when he
argued against the use of prostitutes in chapter six, repeating the slogan that appears to
have summarized Corinthian thought regarding the worth of their bodies: “Food for the
stomach and the stomach for food, and God will destroy them both” (1 Cor. 6:13). Paul’s
instruction that the human body is a temple for the Spirit of God would have come as a
surprise to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 6:19). His admonition to honour God with their bodies
would have been met with astonishment (1 Cor. 6:20). Regarding Paul’s instruction to
honour God with their body, Gordon Fee states, “This, of course, stands in stark contrast
to the pneumatics’ view that the body is destined for destruction and therefore has no
present or eternal significance.”365 Pearson states, “By far the most probable assumption
is that they affirmed a doctrine of immortality and regarded a resurrection of the body as
superfluous, if not altogether repugnant.”366 The Corinthians had a low view of the
human body and this was at the heart of their misunderstanding of resurrection.367 Why
would God bring back to life something that was never intended for eternal living? With
this kind of noncorporeal eschatology, the Corinthians were caught between rejecting the

364

Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 821.
Fee, 1 Corinthians, 291.
366
Pearson, 16.
367
Thiselton, 1 Corinthians, 463.
365

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bodily resurrection of Jesus and not having a good answer for why members among them
were still dying.

Paul’s approach to correct the issue
The fifteenth chapter of 1 Corinthians functions both as a stand-alone argument
about the resurrection of Jesus and of all believers, and also as the culmination of the
entire argument of the letter of 1 Corinthians. Although it is not explicit in the text,
implicitly the reader is once again seeing Paul defend the gospel message to a divided
people.368 This resurrection chapter also brings clarity to Paul’s “Christ crucified”
perspective of God’s wisdom and power (1 Cor. 1:24). In so doing, Paul is able to clarify
that a cruciform posture of discipleship is how we enter the struggle of life, and it is in
resurrection that full vindication of wrongs (i.e., sins) is brought about (1 Cor. 15:56-57).
Paul begins his defense of resurrection by restating the gospel message (1 Cor.
15:1-11). Paul’s main strategy in these first eleven verses is to re-establish the tradition of
the gospel of Jesus Christ: “that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that
he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he
appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve” (1 Cor. 3b-5). Paul then explains that Jesus
appeared to over 500 people and in this he expands the scope and impact of the gospel by
God’s grace (1 Cor. 15:10). In so doing, Paul explicitly connects the gospel to an actual
event, not simply an allegorical account that symbolized the resurrection of Christian

368

The entire fifteenth chapter of 1 Corinthians is apologetic in nature. Paul is arguing with those
whose beliefs about resurrection were incorrect or misguided, according to the tradition that he had
received. Furthermore, we learn in 1 Cor. 15:12 that “some” in the church in Corinth did not believe in the
resurrection of the dead. What may be implied here is that “others” may have disagreed.

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hope.369 And Paul’s interest here is not to give them (or remind them of) his own
perspective or interpretation of this event, but to pass on the revelation as it was
originally given to him. Gordon Fee states, “For all the shaping that Christian theology
underwent in his hands, the basic elements were there before and after him. This is what
he ‘received’ and what he ‘passed on.’”370
Twice in this gospel summary, in 1 Cor. 15:3-4, Paul uses the phrase: κατὰ τὰς
γραφὰς (according to the Scriptures). Most scholars agree that Paul is not quoting any
Old Testament passage specifically here but referring generally to the grand story of the
scriptures that testifies to Jesus. N.T. Wright comments, “There are of course several
scripture passages which point in this direction, including some of the Psalms and several
parts of Isaiah 40-55; but Paul is primarily concerned with the entire sweep of biblical
narrative.”371 Paul did not present his own idea of who Jesus is; rather, he declared what
had been given to him by the Apostles. In so doing, as Mitchell aptly explains, “Paul calls
them to unity in their common traditions (1 Cor. 15:1; cf.11:2, 23), and in their future
eschatological destiny (a further extension of the σῶμα argument; 15:35-49).”372
What should be of particular interest in Paul’s gospel summary is the perfect
passive ἐγἠγερται (from ἐγείρω, meaning “to raise”). Fee states, “In distinction from the
two previous lines, the verb in this instance is a perfect passive (‘he has been raised’),
implying that he was both raised and still lives.”373 The perfect passive is repeated

369

N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 317.
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 801. Regarding its form, N.T, Wright
remarks, “It was probably formulated within the first two or three years after Easter itself, since it was
already in formulaic form when Paul ‘received’ it. We are here in touch with the earliest Christian tradition,
with something that was being said two decades or more before Paul wrote this letter.” N.T. Wright, The
Resurrection of the Son of God, 319
371
N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 320-321.
372
Margaret Mitchell, Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation, 176.
373
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 806.
370

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throughout the chapter when referring to Christ (vv. 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, and 20),
demonstrating Paul’s conviction that the resurrection of Jesus does in fact have continual
implications for the future.
After reminding the Corinthians of the foundation of the gospel message in the
first eleven verses, Paul moves on to describe how the resurrection of Jesus has
implications for the resurrection of believers (1 Cor. 15:12-34). Paul wants the
Corinthians to understand that the resurrection of Jesus is not an isolated event from
human history, but the ἀπαρχή (firstfruits, 1 Cor. 15:20) of what is yet to come. Paul’s
point is this: there will be a resurrection of the dead because Jesus was raised from the
dead. Margaret Mitchell states that Paul’s point is to, “prove the necessary consequence
of Christ’s resurrection – the resurrection of believers – as against ‘some’ Corinthians
who deny that there is a resurrection of the dead.”374 Commenting on the nature of the
argument, Wright states that this is reductio ad absurdum, “showing that those who deny
the future resurrection are cutting off the branch they are sitting on.”375 Ultimately, Paul
demonstrates how their current position regarding resurrection denies their own future
because it rejects the fundamental premise in which all eternal life is based: the
resurrection of Jesus.
Paul continues from his initial questions in 1 Cor. 15:12-13 and plays out the
consequences of holding to a view of no resurrection (vss. 14-19) and then he returns to
his convictions regarding the actual resurrection of Jesus and how it is not only the means
by which all are saved, but that it also establishes the pattern by which all believers find
confidence in their own future (vss. 20-28). Wright clarifies, “The argument of chapter

374
375

Margaret Mitchell, Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation, 288.
N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 332.

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15, then, runs as follows: what the creator god did for Jesus is both the model and the
means of what he will do for all Jesus’ people.”376 It is the “means” part of the equation
that the Corinthians had not fully accepted.
Paul’s gospel approach to this entire chapter on resurrection culminates in 1 Cor.
15:28 as he declares, “When he has done this, then the Son himself will be made subject
to him who put everything under him, so that God may be all in all.” Borrowing from
Psalm 8:6, Paul envisions everything being brought under the reign of Jesus, and then
when this has been completed, everything will be set right under God so that God might
be “all in all.” What is crucial to understand at this point for the purposes of
understanding Paul’s overall argument is that God cannot be supreme if death is not
defeated. As Fee states, “These sentences are crucial to the whole argument: Christ’s
resurrection demands our resurrection; otherwise death is never defeated and God cannot
be ‘all in all.’”377 And so not only is Jesus not raised from the dead if there is no
resurrection, but also God cannot be supreme if there is no resurrection.
Then Paul moves on to address the nature of the resurrection body, which could
be understood as the primary focus for Paul in this section of the letter. The astute reader
would have already picked up clues that some in the church in Corinth had views about
the human body that differed from Paul’s view (1 Cor. 6:12-20). Many in Corinth would
have had a Platonic dualistic lens by which they viewed their bodies and logically it is
also the lens by which they held to some sort of bodiless resurrection.
Paul presupposes a scenario where someone might ask, “How are the dead raised?
With what kind of body will they come?” (1 Cor. 15:35). In the following verses Paul

376
377

Ibid., 316.
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 828.

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goes on to explain the continuity and discontinuity with bodies that change in form but
not in essence. He does this in two different ways. First, Paul uses an analogy of a seed
that produces a body of the same kind. Paul’s logic here is that a seed planted in the
ground will grow and yield a plant of its same kind, although the plant will be different in
body (form) than the seed which was planted (1 Cor. 15:37-38). Second, Paul also
indicates that the kind of bodies in the world are many, and distinct one from the other (1
Cor. 15:39-41). Paul uses this logic to finally explain that there is distinction of heavenly
(ἐπουράνιος) bodies and earthly (ἐπίγειος) bodies, which he introduces in 1 Cor. 15:40
and returns to in 1 Cor. 15:48-49 (although Paul changes his “earthly” language from
ἐπίγειος to χοϊκός).378
Paul then writes, “So will it be with the resurrection of the dead” (1 Cor. 15:42).
With more agricultural imagery, Paul explains the process of sowing into the ground and
being raised with four different comparisons, culminating in the difference of ψυχικός
and πνευματικός.379 In 1 Cor. 15:44-46, Paul returns to the πνευματικός-ψυχικός
association from 1 Corinthians 2:13-14. However, here he is not describing how a person
receives revelation but how the resurrection body functions.
For Paul the difference between πνευματικός and ψυχικός is not about physicality
or visibility. The debate of supposed influence of Gnosticism in this text in Thiselton’s

378

The term ἐπίγειος means “pertaining to what is characteristic of the earth as opposed to
heavenly, earthly.” BDAG, 368. There are seven occurrences of ἐπίγειος in the New Testament. The term
χοϊκός means “made of earth/dust, earthy.” BDAG, 1086. There are only four occurrences of χοϊκός and
they are all located in 1 Cor. 15:47-49. These terms are essentially synonymous, yet Paul makes a shift in
terminology and uses a word in this text that he and others use in no other place in the New Testament.
What is conclusive is that Paul wants his readers to understand the contrast of the body that came from and
was sustained by that which is of creation. The resurrected body will be sustained by the Spirit.
379
The first three comparisons are perishable to imperishable, dishonour to glory, and weakness to
power. The last two resemble language Paul uses at the beginning of his letter to demonstrate the kind of
recipients of the gospel the Corinthians were in opposition to their self-proclaimed status (1 Cor. 1:26-31;
4:10-11).

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view is outdated and no longer needs any attention.380 Pearson also rejects Gnosticism as
the answer and simply states that the Corinthians would have understood a bodiless
existence based on their reading of Genesis 2:7 in the Septuagint.381 In either case, it
appears from the argument that the Corinthians were not passive in their understanding of
their eschatological state. Using the term πνευματικός, Paul demonstrates his vision for a
Spirit-animated resurrection body that reaffirms the resurrection of Christ.
In 1 Cor. 15:47 Paul introduces the term χοϊκός (earthly) to emphasize the
distinction of the natural body and spiritual body. Although Paul’s argument does not
promote physical resurrection, it does promote a bodily resurrection. “The fundamental
leap of imagination that Paul is asking the puzzled Corinthians to make is to a body
which cannot and will not decay or die: something permanent, established, not transient
or temporary.”382
Finally, Paul brings the entire argument to a conclusion by declaring victory
through an explanation of how the resurrection of Jesus nullifies the penalty of death.
Here Paul not only brings his argument to a climax, but his argument is the climax of his
gospel message. In eschatological form, Paul declares the future breaking into the present
day. Fee states, “That is, he recognized that in those events God had set in motion the
events of the End in such a way that they must of divine necessity be brought to
consummation.”383 So sure of God’s victory over death through the resurrection of Jesus,
Paul quotes from Isaiah 25:8 and declares that death has been swallowed up in victory (1
380

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1174.
Pearson, 24. Pearson argues that the Corinthians’ understanding of Gen. 2:7 placed the
importance on God’s in-breathing of Adam. Therefore, it is currently the “in-breathing” of the Spirit that is
of importance, not the physical body. This does not explain what the Corinthians believed about the
afterlife, only how they currently viewed the body.
382
Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 347.
383
Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 827.
381

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Cor. 15:54). Then borrowing from Hosea, he takes a seemingly gloomy prophetic word
of plagues, destruction, death and the grave, and he converts it into an affront against
death itself: “Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” (1 Cor.
15:55). For Paul, death has altogether been defeated already save the final demonstration:
the resurrection of all believers.
In the last few verses of 1 Corinthians 15 Paul explains how this victory is won.
He tells the Corinthians that the beginning of all of this downward spiral that leads to
death is sin, and what gives sin its power or its ability to hold people accountable for their
wrongdoing is the law (1 Cor. 15:56). Then Paul concludes with thanksgiving that Jesus
has provided victory, implying that his death and resurrection resolved the claim of death
that sin had on human life (1 Cor. 15:57). Gordon Fee states, “Thus for Paul there is a
divine necessity to the resurrection of the dead, since that alone is the evidence of the
final overthrow of the last enemy, death itself.”384 Then finally Paul concludes with a
benediction that charges the Corinthians to labour for the Lord (1 Cor. 15:58).

Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός
The Apostle Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in chapter fifteen was primarily
in response to a view of an eternal bodiless existence. Some in Corinth rejected the idea
of a resurrection because the only possible conceptualization of resurrection is an eternity
in a body of flesh, which would have sounded repulsive to them. Two conclusions need
to be made regarding the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 15.
The first conclusion regarding the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 15 is similar

384

Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 827.

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to the conclusion drawn from Paul’s use of πνευματικός in chapter two of 1 Corinthians.
In both of these chapters, the term πνευματικός is best understood in relation to ψυχικός.
Not only is there clarity around the distinction between these two adjectives in the
presence or agency of the Spirit, but we also gain clarity regarding the word πνευματικός
in relation to how Paul handles material and immaterial dualism. Wright clarifies that
“The adjective describes, not what something is composed of, but what it is animated
by.”385 Unlike the choice the NRSV made to translate ψυχικός as “physical,” we must
maintain that ψυχικός cannot mean “physical” because it forces πνευματικός to then
mean “non-physical,” and then Paul’s logic and argument that our resurrection bodies
will be like the resurrection body of Jesus is left untrue.386
The conclusion regarding the πνευματικός-ψυχικός pairing in chapter two of the
thesis distinguished between the person who lives by the Spirit and the person who lives
without the Spirit, especially in the context of receiving wisdom from God. In so doing,
we understand that πνευματικός is not referring primarily to invisible or nonmaterial
qualities (although the Spirit is both of these) but referring instead to the activity or
agency of the Spirit in the believer, which is another way God reveals himself. The
activity of God’s Spirit in the believer is God’s self-revelation to the believer.
As Paul uses this same πνευματικός-ψυχικός pairing in chapter fifteen to describe
the difference between the human body prior to resurrection and the resurrected body, the
distinction is not the substance or appearance of the body, but that which animates the
385

Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 352.
As noted in chapter two of this project, the Greek term ψυχικός is best understood as
“pertaining to the ψυχή.” While the term ψυχή is used a few different ways in the New Testament, it
generally refers to life, or the natural human life or life-force that animates human life. To describe
someone as ψυχικός is to describe their natural life that is without the resources of the Spirit, as one who is
πνευματικός. Translation of ψυχικός could be “natural” or “without the Spirit,” but each context in which it
is used will require some further explanation.
386

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body or gives it life. In other words, Paul’s use of ψυχικός to describe the human body is
not to describe physicality, but the natural created elements that gives a body of flesh life.
Using this logic, Paul is now using the term πνευματικός to describe a body that is
animated by the Spirit, or perhaps it is a body that operates in the realm of the Spirit.387
The πνευματικός-ψυχικός pairing here further develops Paul’s usage of the term
πνευματικός as “pertaining to the πνεῦμα.”
The second conclusion regarding the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians 15 is
observed through the reflection on Genesis 2:7 and the association Paul is making
between resurrection and new creation.388 For Paul, the difference between the ψυχικός
person and the πνευματικός person in the context of resurrection is marked by a new age.
As Pearson notes, “To the opponents’ view that a πνευματικός element in man’s soul is
that which guarantees his continuity after death, Paul must answer that man both in body
and soul, as a ψυχικὸν σῶμα, belongs still to the old Adam through whom sin and death
came into the world.”389 Pearson argues that Paul uses the reference to Genesis 2:7 to
refute the idea that it was in creation that God put the πνευματικός element in man’s soul.
In other words, Genesis 2:7 does not explain the πνευματικός person, but the ψυχικός
person. Paul’s comparison then lies in the second Adam, as Pearson concludes, “Man’s
full spiritual existence as a πνευματικὸν σῶμα lies in the future with the resurrection, it is
an eschatological hope.”390 N.T. Wright summarizes this well:
Genesis 2.7 is thus not so much a proof-text, more a part of the larger story which
387

Pearson concludes, “Man’s existence in the resurrection, however, will be characterized by a
πνευματικὸν σῶμα (= τὸ σῶμα τὸ γενησόμενον v. 37), to which will belong the attributes of ἀφθαρσία,
δόξα, δύναμις, etc. Then man – i.e., man ἐν Χριστῷ -- will belong entirely to the new aeon of life, to the
Man through whom is the ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν (15.21) and who himself as the resurrected one is the ἀπαρχή
τῶν κεκοιμημένων (15.20).” Pearson, 26.
388
καἰ ἐγένετο ὁ ἄνθρωπος εἰς ψυχἠν ζῶαν (“and the man became a living being”).
389
Pearson, 25.
390
Ibid.

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the Christian, looking at Jesus’ resurrection, can now tell; and the good news
which emerges from this is that Jesus has pioneered the way into the long-awaited
future, the new age which the creator has planned (verse 46). The pneumatikos
state is not simply an original idea in the mind of the creator, from which the
human race fell sadly away; this model of humanity is the future reality, the
reality which will swallow up and replace merely psychikos life.391
The eschatological nature of this resurrection chapter establishes a context by
which the term πνευματικός is seen as the Spirit’s work for life eternal. Resurrection
marks the transition from the present age to the age to come. This resurrection, according
to Paul, is characterized by the work and activity of the Spirit.

391

Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 355.

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5. CONCLUSION
The initial interest of this study emerged from a few observations based upon 1
Corinthians 3:1-4. It was noted that Paul was using the terms πνευματικός and σαρκικός
in an interesting way to confront the Corinthians on their divisive behaviours and to
demonstrate to them that their self-assessment was misguided. A word study of
πνευματικός showed that this word was mostly used by Paul in the New Testament and
that fifteen out of the twenty-four times Paul used it was in 1 Corinthians. A question was
asked: Why does Paul repeatedly use the term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians? What
emerged was a project that has now established an understanding and meaning of the
term πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians and some implications for the church today.

5.1 The meaning of πνευματικός in the letter of 1 Corinthians
In chapter one of this project, it was identified that factions in the church in
Ancient Corinth was the key problem that precipitated Paul’s response by letter. The
factions were the result of competing interests among a church congregation, some who
had not abandoned all of the secular ethics from their past and these resulted in certain
behaviours that challenged their Christian formation.
The letter of 1 Corinthians is one of numerous interactions Paul and those of his
travelling team had with the church in Corinth. Paul’s methodology of correction in 1
Corinthians was to occasionally repeat key words or phrases to signal to his audience that
he was indeed referring to their stated beliefs and practices (called “slogans” in this
project) that he had heard about from various sources. Among these repeated words and
phrases was the Greek term πνευματικός, a word repeated fifteen times in this letter. The

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question was asked: Why does Paul repeatedly use the term πνευματικός in 1
Corinthians? And the following hypothesis was formulated: The thesis of this project
will demonstrate that the Apostle Paul’s usage of the Greek adjective πνευματικός
in the letter of 1 Corinthians is a corrective response to the distorted pneumatology
of some in the Corinthian church.
The term “slogan” is used by several scholars, among other terms such as
aphorism and maxim, to refer to the words or phrases that the Corinthians used to state or
to justify their conduct and behavior around certain actions. Some of these became
divisive features in the church community and these slogans appear in 1 Corinthians
because Paul wants to address the underlying issues revealed in the terminology used by
these factions. While πνευματικός is not a slogan in the typical sense, what this project
has demonstrated is that some in the church in Corinth were referring to themselves as
advanced over others in various ways, and the term πνευματικός became a way for them
to label that advantage. This is one of the unique features that distinguishes the use of
πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians from other occurrences in the New Testament.
In chapter two of this project, the Greek term πνευματικός was identified as a
derivative adjective belonging to a group of adjectives with suffixes -ικός and -ινος that
emerged during the classical period. These Greek adjectives carry the sense of
“pertaining to” and it was concluded that the fundamental meaning of πνευματικός in the
New Testament is “pertaining to the πνεῦμα.” It is agreed that most of the time this
adjective is used in reference to the Holy Spirit, though the clear exception to this is
Ephesians 6:12. Other associated terms used alongside πνευματικός, such as ψυχικός and

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σαρκικός (and σάρκινος), give particular clarity to how Paul understood and used the
term πνευματικός in the letter of 1 Corinthians.
In chapter three of this project, the term πνευματικός was examined in Greek
literature predating the New Testament as well as all of the occurrences in the New
Testament and those appearing in the Apostolic Fathers. The analysis of these
occurrences demonstrated a major shift in how Paul understood and used the term
πνευματικός as compared to the occurrences that predate the New Testament, related to
the shift in meaning for the term πνεῦμα in the LXX and New Testament. It is not as
though πνεῦμα and πνευματικός always refers to the Spirit of God in the New Testament,
but they often do.
In chapter four of this project, all four major sections of 1 Corinthians were
analyzed in order to understand the specific context of each occurrence of πνευματικός.
Here the reader can clearly see not only Paul’s theological acumen for a more precise
pneumatology than what the Corinthians had shown, but also Paul’s pastoral leadership
as the letter clearly demonstrates Paul’s care and concern for these people. Paul not only
instructed the Corinthians accurately about the activity of the Spirit, but he also did so
while inviting the Corinthians to view church leadership than the current social culture of
Corinth had taught them.
This part of the project also demonstrated Paul’s consistent use of the term
πνευματικός as “pertaining to the πνεῦμα” in the context of 1 Corinthians. Although the
fifteen occurrences of πνευματικός in 1 Corinthians differed in context in the four major
sections of the letter, the following common threads were identified:

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In all fifteen occurrences Paul clearly had the agency of the Spirit in mind when
using the term πνευματικός. This main emphasis of agency does not necessarily exclude
πνευματικός from elsewhere referring to invisible or nonmaterial qualities, but simply
brings emphasis to Paul’s main concern: the term πνευματικός primarily refers to agency
of the Spirit of God.
In all fifteen occurrences Paul seemed to be referring to some sort of revelation by
the Spirit, even if that revelation had more to do with resources than wisdom or insight. It
is by God’s Spirit that people can know God and have the mind of Christ; that they are
supplied with heavenly resources; that they can utter the things of God; and that they
become fully a part of the new creation through resurrection.
In all fifteen occurrences Paul understood and used the term πνευματικός in the
context of the gospel of Jesus Christ. From beginning to end, the letter of 1 Corinthians is
all about the message of the crucified and resurrected Christ. While the last section
clearly points to the resurrection and consummation of life in the realm of the Spirit, Paul
also points to the Spirit in the search for wisdom, in leadership (evident in his apostolic
defense), in the use of knowledge, and in the shared life of the gathered church.

5.2 The implications of this study for the church today
This project has demonstrated that the term πνευματικός was used repeatedly
throughout the letter of 1 Corinthians in a consistent manner as Paul brought attention to
the misuse of the term πνευματικός in Corinth and the misunderstanding of how the Spirit
works in the church in general. The conclusions of this study shown above should help
the reader of 1 Corinthians identify the problem in Corinth and Paul’s pastoral solution,

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as well as give insight into the key term πνευματικός and how it is used in the New
Testament. In addition to these conclusions that have been brought forward from each of
the four previous chapters of this project, the following three points may further the
implications regarding Paul’s use of the term πνευματικός in the church and in Christian
discipleship today.
First, the church in its approximately two thousand years has always experienced
the difficulty of quarrelling and divisions in various ways, including some that resemble
the divisions in the church at Corinth. There are multiple reasons why churches are
unable to resolve internal conflicts and why more and more new churches are formed
because of disagreement and division in existing churches, but the irony in every single
case is that the fruit of the Spirit should be unity, not division. One might suggest that at
the heart of every church split is a substantial misunderstanding of the activity of the
Spirit of God in the church. This is not to imply that the Spirit of God is not active in the
church today or that some churches operate without the leading and work of the Holy
Spirit. But just as the Corinthians had the Spirit but did not live according to the Spirit
(πνευματικός, 1 Cor. 3:1), the church constantly faces the challenge to not give in to
worldly postures (σαρκικός, 1 Cor. 3:3).392
In Corinth it was not the leaders (i.e., apostles) who incited the divisions, but
some of the people in the church who proclaimed in slogan-like fashion a certain kind of
belonging to leaders. Paul demonstrates that he was absolutely opposed to this kind of
competition. He instead directed them to stop dividing themselves and to be like-minded

392

The challenges today are not limited to internal choices of how to navigate difference of
opinion among believers, but also include the external dangers that impose on the church, including forces
of evil that Paul refers to as principalities and powers, the rulers of this age, and spiritual beings.

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and unified. In doing this, Paul’s message of “pertaining to the πνεῦμα” is in effect an
appeal to unity where competition among leaders has no place. In his commentary on 1
Corinthians, Richard Hays pastorally writes:
Whenever there are cults of personality in the church, Paul’s indictment hits
home. When the charisma and ambition of the preacher begin to loom larger than
the gospel of the cross, something is dreadfully wrong. When the faithful start to
align and define themselves in terms of one particular leader, a red flag should go
up.393
To be clear, the problem of personality cults sometimes has as much to do with
bad behaviours and wrong motivations in congregations as it has with such features in the
leaders themselves. This was Paul’s experience and it appears this is also true for
Apollos. The activity of the Spirit, if received well, will guide both congregation and
leader to resolve differences, to learn to live with diversity, and to resist rivalries and the
pride that usually accompanies.
Second, the church today would be wise to pay attention to the choice of words
when it comes to describing things that are important to understanding God. Too often
the adjective “spiritual” is used in ways that blur what is really meant. As some of the
Corinthians considered themselves “the spiritual ones” (οἱ πνευματικοί), the response
from Paul was the very opposite. Just as Paul wanted the Corinthians to understand that
the term πνευματικός was not one to boast in or to use to promote their status in the
community, the church today should be careful with the English adjective “spiritual.”
Paul’s main goal was to steer the Corinthians away from status and achievement and to
help them pay attention to the activity of the Spirit of God. As Thiselton noted:
We believe that this is a decisive indication that Paul wishes the adjectival form
πνευματικός to be understood as meaning of the Spirit (of God), and not as the
393

Richard Hays, 1 Corinthians, 25.

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166

more bland spiritual, which allows for the very misunderstanding which Paul
wishes to exclude.394
Modern English translations would do well to look for creative alternatives to
translate the term πνευματικός in order to avoid the confusion of what is meant by the
word “spiritual.” For example, in 1 Cor. 3:1 the NIV translates the term πνευματικός as
“people who live by the Spirit” instead of “spiritual people” (New Living Translation).
This is one example of a few places where the NIV has been more explicit about the
Spirit as a way of translating and thus articulating the meaning of the term πνευματικός
more accurately.
Third, the church today should be awakened to the eschatological emphasis in
Paul’s language to the Corinthians. The pouring out and indwelling of God’s Spirit is
“last days” kind of language. This is now imbedded in Paul’s understanding of revelation
and wisdom, of knowledge and expressing the things of God in the gathering of the
church, and the consummation of all things through bodily resurrection, which Paul refers
to as “bodies pertaining to the Spirit” (πνευματικὸν σῶμα). This eschatological approach
to understanding life in the Spirit brings urgency and immediacy for the church to live
according to the Spirit through obedience and following the Lord Jesus daily. Paul is not
calling the church to live in panic, but to recognize that new creation has already begun
with the work of the Spirit in the church. Paul’s repeated use of the term πνευματικός in 1
Corinthians was ultimately to inform and point the Corinthian believers, and thus to the
church today, to Spirit life, fully living in obedience to Christ, and fully contributing to
the community.

394

Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 265.

Πνευματικός | Jeff Peters

Appendix A

167

All 26 occurrences of πνευματικός in the New Testament

Book

Ref.

Inflection

Parse

Gr. Noun

NIV

Galatians

6:1

πνευματικοί

masc pl nom

-

you who live by the Spirit

1 Corinthians

2:13

πνευματικοῖς

n/m pl dat

-

explaining spiritual realities

1 Corinthians

2:13

πνευματικά

neut pl acc

-

Spirit-taught words

1 Corinthians

2:15

πνευματικός

masc sg nom

-

The person with the Spirit

1 Corinthians

3:1

πνευματικοῖς

masc pl dat

-

people who live by the Spirit

1 Corinthians

9:11

πνευματικά

neut pl acc

-

spiritual seed

1 Corinthians

10:3

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

βρῶμα

spiritual food

1 Corinthians

10:4

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

ἒπιον

spiritual drink

1 Corinthians

10:4

πνευματικῆς

fem sg gen

πέτρας

spiritual rock

1 Corinthians

12:1

πνευματικῶν

n/m pl gen

-

spiritual gifts

1 Corinthians

14:1

πνευματικά

neut pl acc

-

gifts of the Spirit

1 Corinthians

14:37

πνευματικός

masc sg nom

-

gifted by the Spirit

1 Corinthians

15:44

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

σῶμα

a spiritual body

1 Corinthians

15:44

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

-

a spiritual body

1 Corinthians

15:46

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

-

the spiritual

1 Corinthians

15:46

πνευματικόν

neut sg nom

-

the spiritual

Romans

1:11

πνευματικόν

neut sg acc

-

spiritual gift

Romans

7:14

πνευματικόν

masc sg nom

ὁ νόμος

the law is spiritual

Romans

15:27

πνευματικοῖς

neut pl dat

-

the Jews' spiritual blessings

Ephesians

1:3

πνευματικῇ

fem sg dat

ἐυλογία

spiritual blessing

Ephesians

5:19

πνευματικαῖς

fem pl dat

ᾠδαῖς

songs from the Spirit

Ephesians

6:12

πνευματικά

neut pl acc

-

Colossians

1:9

πνευματικῇ

fem sg dat

σοφίᾳ συνέσει

Colossians

3:16

πνευματικαῖς

fem pl dat

ᾠδαῖς

spiritual forces
wisdom and understanding that
the Spirit gives
songs from the Spirit

1 Peter

2:5

πνευματικός

masc sg nom

οἶκος

spiritual house

1 Peter

2:5

πνευματικάς

fem pl acc

θυσίας

spiritual sacrifices

Πνευματικός | Jeff Peters

Appendix B

168

Corinthian Slogans

The following are some specific criteria for identifying and isolating Corinthian slogans
in 1 Corinthians (Jay Smith, “Slogans in 1 Corinthians,” 2010, pp.84-86).
1. Explicit introductory formulae such as the recitative OTI (e.g., 8:1, 4; cf. 7:1).
2. A brief, pithy, and often elliptical statement or generalization in the present tense, that
is, a proverb, maxim, catch-phrase, or motto (e.g., “all things are lawful,” 6:12).
3. Rhetorical features and parallel structures that enhance memorability (e.g., the chiasm
in 6:13: food-stomach-stomach-food).
4. Repetition elsewhere in the letter that suggests common currency and/or a formulaic
pattern (e.g., “all things are lawful” occurs four times, twice in 6:12 and twice in 10:23).
5. Diatribal features that suggest “imaginary” dialogue (e.g., 6:12-20).
6. Vocabulary, syntax, or ideas foreign to or inconsistent with Paul (or not normally used
for certain concepts) (e.g., 7:1b expresses asceticism foreign to Paul; cf. 9:19-22; 10:2526, 29b-30; Eph. 5:22-33).
7. Contextual or syntactical dislocation (a statement that is inserted abruptly or “point
blank,” change of addressees, shifts in vocabulary) (e.g., change of addressee occurs from
8:7 to 8:8).
8. A sharp counterattack (including a severe qualification or total rejection) or pointcounterpoint argumentation (e.g., 6:13: “Food is for the stomach and the stomach is for
food . . . Yet the body is not for immorality, but for the Lord, and the Lord is for the
body”).
9. Vocabulary or theology that other contexts suggest is exclusively or characteristically
Corinthian (e.g., the presence of the Corinthian “buzz word” GNOSIS, “knowledge,”
8:1).
Three Additional Tests
1. Contextual congruency: Does identifying and isolating a slogan make the best sense of
the immediate context?
2. Confirmation by others in the history of exegesis (the mature reflection and collective
wisdom of “the interpretive community”).
3. Convergence of multiple strands of evidence.

Πνευματικός | Jeff Peters

Appendix C

169

Theological Definition of Πνευματικός

Bauer, Walter. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature, ed. Frederick W. Danker, 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press, 2000.
(comparison from all three editions)
FIRST EDITION: BAG
(Pre-Socr. +, mostly in the sense ‘pertaining to the wind or breath’; Strabo 1, 3, 5;
Cleomedes [II AD] 1, 8 p. 84, 22 HZiegler ’91; Vett. Val. P. 1, 11; 231, 20; PGM 5, 25;
Philo) predom. in Paul in our lit. (elsewh. only 1 Pt, 2 Cl, B, Ign., D) pertaining to the
spirit, spiritual.
1. referring to the inner life of a human being; stands in contrast to σωματικόν
2. in the great majority of cases it refers to the divine πνεῦμα; caused by or filled with the
(divine) Spirit, pertaining or corresponding to the (divine) Spirit
3. pertaining to (evil) spirits
SECOND EDITION: BAGD
(Pre-Socr. +, mostly in the sense ‘pertaining to the wind or breath’; Strabo 1, 3, 5;
Cleomedes [II AD] 1, 8 p. 84, 22 HZiegler ’91; Vett. Val. P. 1, 11; 231, 20; PGM 5, 25;
Philo) predom. in Paul in our lit. (elsewh. only 1 Pt, 2 Cl, B, Ign., D) pertaining to the
spirit, spiritual.
1. referring to the inner life of a human being; stands in contrast to σωματικόν
2. in the great majority of cases it refers to the divine πνεῦμα; caused by or filled with the
(divine) Spirit, pertaining or corresponding to the (divine) Spirit
3. pertaining to (evil) spirits
THIRD EDITION: BDAG
(Pre-Socr. +, mostly in the sense ‘pertaining to the wind or breath’; Strabo 1, 3, 5;
Cleomedes [II AD] 1, 8 p. 84, 22 HZiegler ’91; Vett. Val. P. 1, 11; 231, 20; PLond I, 46,
25 p.66 [IV AD?]; PGM 5, 25; GrBar 13:4 [π. πατέρας]; Philo; Just.; Tat. 15, 3) predom.
in Paul in our lit. (elsewh. only 1 Pt, 2 Cl, B, Ign., D) pertaining to the spirit, spiritual.
1. pert. to spirit as inner life of a human being, spiritual; stands in contrast to σωματικόν
2. in the great majority of cases in ref. to the divine πνεῦμα; having to do with the
(divine) spirit, caused by or filled with the (divine) spirit, pert./corresponding to the
(divine) spirit
3. pert. to (evil) spirits
1 Pt = 1 Peter
2 Cl = 2 Clement (Bihlmeyer 71-81) 14:1, 2, 3
B = Barnabas (the Letter of) 1:2; 4:11
Ign. = Ignatius (Ephesians) 5:1; 7:2; 8:2 (x3); 10:3; 11:2 (Magnesians) 13:1, 2
(Smyrnians) 3:3; 12:2; 13:2 (Polycarp) 1:2; 2:2
D = Didache 10:3

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170

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Ewert, David. The Church in a Pagan Society. Winnipeg, MB: Kindred Press, 1986.
Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987.
Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Revised Edition. [NICNT]. Grand
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Goulder, M. D. Paul and The Competing Mission in Corinth. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson
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Harrisville, Roy A. 1 Corinthians. [Augsburg Commentary]. Minneapolis, MN:
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Johnson, Alan F. 1 Corinthians. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
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Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. 1 Corinthians. [The People’s Bible Commentary]. Oxford,
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Doubleday and Company, 1974.

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Bruce, F.F. The Book of the Acts, Revised Edition. [NICNT]. Grand Rapids, MI:
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Dunn, James D.G. Romans 1-8. [Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 38A]. Milton
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OTHER RELATED WORKS
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Brookins, Timothy. Corinthian Wisdom, Stoic Philosophy, and the Ancient Economy.
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